Blog

News

MULTIMETER

Posted by quintustheresraj on March 13, 2013 at 2:30 AM

A multimeter is an instrument used to check for AC or DC voltages, resistance or continuity of electrical components and small amounts of current in circuits. This instrument will let you check to see if there is voltage present on a circuit, etc. Here's how to use an analog multimeter.

EditSteps

1. 1

Become familiar with the parts of a multimeter. Inspect the meter. Starting from the top and working to the bottom:

Ads by Google

Used Digital Multimeter

Buy Used Digital Multimeter & Other Test Equipments at Affordable Price

www.sdtechnologies.co.in/Get_Quote

o The dial: This has the arc-shaped scales visible through the window. The pointer indicates values read from the scale.

o The pointer or needle: This is the thin black line at the left-most position in the dial face window in the image. The needle moves to the value measured.

o Arc shaped lines or scales on the meter dial face: These may be different colors for each scale, but will have different values. These determine the ranges of magnitude.

o A wider mirror-like surface shaped like the scales mentioned previously might also be present. The mirror is used to help reduce parallax viewing error by lining up the pointer with its reflection before reading the value the pointer is indicating. In the image, it appears as a wide gray strip between the red and black scales.

o A selector switch or knob: This allows changing the function (volts, ohms, amps) and scale (x1, x10, etc.) of the meter. Many functions have multiple ranges. It is important to have both set correctly, otherwise serious damage to the meter or harm to the operator may result. Most meters employ the knob type like the one shown in the image, but there are others. Regardless of the type, they work similarly. Some meters (like the one in the image above) have an "Off" position on this selector switch while others have a separate switch to turn the meter off. The meter should be set to "Off" when stored.

o Jacks or openings in the case to insert test leads. Most multimeters have several jacks. The one pictured has just two. One is usually labeled "COM" or (-) ,for common and negative. This is where the black test lead is connected. It will be used for nearly every measurement taken. The other jack(s) is labeled "V" (+) and the Omega symbol (an upside down horseshoe) for Volts and Ohms, respectively, and positive. The + and - symbols represent the polarity of probes when set for and testing DC volts. If the test leads were installed as suggested, the red lead would be positive as compared to the black test lead. This is nice to know when the circuit under test isn't labeled + or -, as is usually the case. Many meters have additional jacks that are required for current or high-voltage tests. It is equally important to have the test leads connected to the proper jacks as it is to have the selector switch range and test type (volts, amps, ohms) set. All must be correct. Consult the meter manual if you're unsure which jacks should be used.

o Test leads: There should be (2) test leads or probes. Generally, one is black and the other red.

o Battery and fuse compartment: Usually found on the reverse, but sometimes on the side. This holds the fuse (and possibly a spare), and the battery that supplies power to the meter for resistance tests. The meter may have more than one battery and they may be of different sizes. A fuse is provided to help protect the meter movement. Sometimes there is more than one fuse. A good fuse is required for the meter to function. Fully charged batteries will be required for resistance/continuity tests.

o Zero Adjustment: This is a small knob usually located near the dial that is labeled "Ohms Adjust", "0 Adj", or similar. This is used only in the ohms or resistance range, while the probes are shorted together (touching each other). Rotate the knob slowly to move the needle as close to the 0 position on the Ohms scale as possible. If new batteries are installed, this should be easy to do - a needle that will not go to zero indicates weak batteries that should be replaced.

Using the Ohm Function to Measure Resistance

1. 1

Multimeter with selector set to "Ohms". This meter only has a single Ohms range.

Set the multimeter to Ohms or Resistance (turn meter on if it has a separate power switch). Understand that resistance and continuity are opposites. When multimeter measures resistance in ohms, it can not measure continuity. When there is little resistance there is a great deal of continuity. Conversely, when there is a great deal of resistance, there is little continuity. With this in mind, when we measure resistance we can make assumptions about continuity based on the resistance values measured.

o Observe the meter indication. If the test leads are not in contact with anything, the needle or pointer of an analog meter will be resting at the left-most position. This is represents an infinite amount of resistance, or an "open circuit"; it is also safe to say there is the no continuity, or path between the black and red probes.

o Careful inspection of the dial should reveal the Ohm scale. It is usually the top-most scale and has values that are highest on the left of the dial ("∞" or a sideways "8" for infinity) and gradually reduce to 0 on the right. This is opposite of the other scales; they have the lowest values on the left and increase going right.

2. 2

Connect the black test lead to the jack marked "Common" or "-".

3. 3

Connect the red test lead to the jack marked with the Omega (Ohm symbol) or letter "R" near it.

4. 4

Set the range (if provided) to R x 100.

5. 5

Hold the probes at the end of the test leads together. The meter pointer should move fully to the right. Locate the "Zero Adjust" knob and rotate so that the the meter indicates "0" (or as close to "0" as possible).

o Note that this position is the "short circuit" or "zero ohms" indication for this R x 1 range of this meter.

o Always remember to "zero" the meter immediately after changing resistance ranges.

6. 6

Replace batteries (if needed). If you're unable to obtain a zero ohm indication, this may mean the batteries are weak and should be replaced. Retry the zeroing step above again with fresh batteries.

7. 7

Measure resistance of something like a light bulb you know is good. Locate the two electrical contact points of the bulb. They will be the threaded base and the center of the bottom of the base. Have a helper hold the bulb by the glass only. Press the black probe against the threaded base and the red probe against the center tab on the bottom of the base. Watch the needle move from resting at the left and move quickly to 0 on the right.

8. 8

Try different ranges. Change the range of the meter to R x 1. Zero the meter again for this range. Repeat the step above. Observe how the meter did not go as far to the right as before. The scale of resistance has been changed so that each number on the R scale can be read directly. In the previous step, each number represented a value that was 100 times greater. Thus, 150 really was 15,000 before. Now, 150 is just 150. Had the R x 10 scale been selected, 150 would have been 1,500. The scale selected is very important for accurate measurements. With this understanding, study the R scale. It is not linear like the other scales. Values at the left side are harder to accurately read than those on the right. Trying to read 5 ohms on the meter while in the R x 100 range would look like 0. It would be much easier at the R x 1 scale instead. This is why when testing resistance, adjust the range so that the readings may be taken from the middle rather than the extreme left or right sides.

9. 9

Test resistance between hands. Set the meter to the highest R x value possible. Zero the meter.

o Loosely hold a probe in each hand and read the meter. Squeeze both probes tightly. Notice the resistance is reduced.

o Let go of the probes and wet your hands. Hold the probes again. Notice that the resistance is lower still.

o For these reasons, it is very important that the probes not touch anything other than the device under test. A device that has burned out will not show "open" on the meter when testing if your fingers provide an alternate path around the device, like when they are touching the probes. Testing round cartridge type and older style glass automotive fuses will indicate low values of resistance if the fuse is lying on a metal surface when under test. The meter indicates the resistance of the metal surface that the fuse is resting upon (providing an alternate path between the red and black probe around the fuse) instead of trying to determine resistance through the fuse. Every fuse, good or bad, will indicate "good".

Using the Volts Function to Measure Voltage

1. 1

Set the meter for the highest range provided for AC Volts. Many times, the voltage to be measured has a value that is unknown. For this reason, the highest range possible is selected so that the meter circuitry and movement will not be damaged by voltage greater than expected. If the meter were set to the 50 volt range and a common U.S. electrical outlet were to be tested, the 120 volts present could irreparably damage the meter. Start high, and work downward to the lowest range that can be safely displayed.

2. 2

Insert the black probe in the "COM" or "-" jack.

3. 3

Insert the red probe in the "V" or "+" jack.

4. 4

Locate the voltage scales. There may be several Volt scales with different maximum values. The range chosen by the selector knob determines which voltage scale to read.

o The maximum value scale should coincide with selector knob ranges. The voltage scales, unlike the Ohm scales, are linear. The scale is accurate anywhere along its length. It will of course be much easier accurately reading 24 volts on a 50 volt scale than on a 250 volt scale, where it might look like it is anywhere between 20 and 30 volts.

5. 5

Test a common electrical outlet. In the U.S., you might expect 120 volts or even 240 volts. In other places, 240 or 380 volts might be expected.

o Press the black probe into one of the straight slots. It should be possible to let go of the black probe, as the contacts behind the face of the outlet should grip the probe, much like it does when a plug is inserted.

o Insert the red probe into the other straight slot. The meter should indicate a voltage very close to 120 or 240 volts (depending on type outlet tested).

o Remove the probes, and rotate the selector knob to the lowest range offered, that is greater than the voltage indicated (120 or 240).

o Reinsert the probes again as described earlier. The meter may indicate between 110 and as much as 125 volts this time. The range of the meter is important to obtain accurate measurements.

o If the pointer did not move, it is likely that DC was chosen instead of AC. The AC and DC modes are not compatible. The correct mode must be set. If not set correctly, the user would mistakenly believe there was no voltage present. This could be deadly.

o Be sure to try both modes if the pointer does not move. Set meter to AC volts mode, and try again.

o Whenever possible, try to connect at least one probe in such a way that it will not be required to hold both while making tests. Some meters have accessories that include alligator clips or other types of clamps that will assist doing this. Minimizing your contact with electrical circuits drastically reduces that chances of sustaining burns or injury.

Using the Amps Function to Measure Amperes

1. 1

Determine AC or DC by measuring the voltage of the circuit as outlined above.

2. 2

Set the meter to the highest AC or DC Amp range supported. If the circuit to be tested is AC but the meter will only measure DC amps (or vice-versa), stop. The meter must be able to measure the same mode (AC or DC) amps as the voltage in the circuit, otherwise it will indicate 0.

Set the meter to the highest AC or DC Amp range supported.

1. 1

o Be aware that most multimeter s will only measure extremely small amounts of current, in the uA and mA ranges. 1 uA is .000001 amp and 1 mA is .001 amp. These are values of current that flow only in the most delicate electronic circuits, and are literally thousands (and even millions) of times smaller than values seen in the home and automotive circuits that most homeowners would be interested testing. Just for reference, a typical 100W / 120V light bulb will draw .833 Amps. This amount of current would likely damage the meter beyond repair.

o A "clamp-on" type ammeter would be ideal for the typical homeowner requirements, and does not require opening the circuit to take measurements (see below).

2. 2

Use a "clamp-on" ammeter. If this meter were to be used to measure current through a 4700 ohm resistor across 9 Volts DC, it would be done as outlined below:

o Insert the black probe into the "COM" or "-" jack.

o Insert the red probe into the "A" jack.

o Shut off power to the circuit.

o Open the portion of the circuit that is to be tested (one lead or the other of the resistor). Insert the meter in series with the circuit such that it completes the circuit. An ammeter is placed in series with the circuit to measure current. It cannot be placed "across" the circuit the way a voltmeter is used (otherwise the meter will probably be damaged). Polarity must be observed. Current flows from the positive side to the negative side. Set the range of current to the highest value.

o Apply power and adjust range of meter downward to allow accurate reading of pointer on the dial. Do not exceed the range of the meter, otherwise it may be damaged. A reading of about 2 milliamps should be indicated since from Ohm's law I = V / R = (9 volts)/(4700 Ω) = .00191 amps = 1.91 mA.

3. 3

If you're measuring the current consumed by the device itself, be aware of any filter capacitors or any element that requires an inrush (surge) current when switched on. Even if the operating current is low and within the range of the meter fuse, the surge can be MANY times higher than the operating current (as the empty filter capacitors are almost like a short circuit). Blowing the meter fuse is almost certain if the DUT's (device under test) inrush current is many times higher than the fuses rating. In any case, always use the higher range measurement protected by the higher fuse rating (if your meter has two fuses), or just be careful.

Ads by Google

USB Spectrum Analyzer

SA44B 1Hz to 4.4GHz, -151dBm, $919 includes AM, FM, SSB, and CW demod

www.SignalHound.com

Digital Multimeters

Rugged, Accurate with Automatic Blocking System to check wrong use

www.genuineautomation.com

Fluke Test Equipment

One Stop Source Used Test Equipment Calibration and Repair

www.mattestusa.com

EditVideo

EditTips

• When you are going to check any part for continuity, you must remove the power. Ohm meters supply their own power from an internal battery. Leaving power on while testing resistance will damage the meter.

• If the multimeter stops working, check the fuse. You can replace these at places like Radio Shack etc.

Ads by Google

VTE Inc

Large Selection & Low Prices on Fuses & Fuse Holders

www.vteworld.com

Test Equipments

Electrical Testing equipments China Factory, Best Quotation

www.iectester.com

ASR Instruments

SIR Test Equipment & SIR Test Services

www.asrinstruments.com

EditWarnings

• Always check meters on known good voltage sources to verify operational status before using. A broken meter testing for volts will indicate 0 volts, regardless of the amount present.

• Never connect the meter across a battery or voltage source if it is set to measure current (amps). This is a common way to blow up a meter.

• Respect electricity. If you don't know something, ask questions and research the subject.

EditThings You'll Need

• Multimeter. Consider a digital meter instead of the older analog types. Digital meters usually offer automatic ranging and easy to read displays. Since they are electronic, the built-in software helps them withstand incorrect connection and ranges better than the mechanical meter movement in analog types.

EditRelated wikiHows

• How to Do a Reverse Bench Press in 90/90 Neutral Back

• How to Use a Light Meter

• How to Read a Multimeter

• How to Use an Ohmmeter

• How to Extend Low Voltage Garden Lights

• How to Buy a Power Supply

• How to Make a Voltage Divider Circuit

• How to Check a Resistor

EditSources and Citations

• http://appliancerepairvideos.com/My-video-clips/How-to-use-a-multitester-analog.wmv

• http://appliancerepairvideos.com/My-video-clips/How-to-use-a-multitester-digital.wmv

Articles for You to Write

Here is a list of suggested articles that have not yet been written. You can help by researching and writing one of these articles. To get started writing one of these articles, click on the red link of a title below.

• How to Read an Ammeter

• How to Use a Volt Meter to Test a Fuse

• How to Test a Battery With a Digital Multimeter

• How to Use a Digital Multimeter to Test AC Voltage

• How to Reduce Voltage With Resistors

Article Info

Last edited:

June 18, 2012 by Milind007

Categories:

Appliances

Recent edits by: Loni_lings, Teresa, Jordan (see all)

In other languages

Español: Como usar un multímetro

Article Tools

Share this Article:

• Discuss

• Print

• Email

• Edit

• Send fan mail to authors

+ Embed this: Republish this entire article on your blog or website.

Ads by Google

Component Testing

Wide range of testing services for capacitors, inductors, resistors.

LabInc.com

Hi-Speed Current Limiting

3 - 38kV, 5000A, 120kA Interrupting Ultra Fast, Arc Flash Mitigation

www.gwelec.com

Thanks to all authors for creating a page that has been read 566,142 times.

How to Test for AC Voltage

By an eHow Contributor

Checking the AC voltage is a simple process if you a multimeter, a device you'll find in most hardware stores. Here's how to use the device. Does this Spark an idea?

GUITER

Posted by quintustheresraj on March 13, 2013 at 2:25 AM

comments (0)

The Names Of Musical Notes

Notes in traditional music theory are represented by the first seven letters of the Latin alphabet; A, B, C, D, E, F, and G. However these aren’t the only notes in music, there are also sharp and flats, and they fall between these main notes.

Why Are They Called Sharps And Flats?

Simple: because the sharpissharp, in that it’s pitched one note above the main note, making itsharper. Where as the flat notes are literally flattened a semi-tone below a main note; hence it is flat. Here is the confusing part. Flats and sharps are actually the same note.

Take the note between G and A. This note can be called either G# or A . And just so you know the symbol for sharp is # and the symbol for flat is .

There are 2 places in the musical alphabet where there are no sharps or flats — betweenE and F, and between B and C. You can see this clearly below (the sharp notes on a piano are black).

Also pay close attention to the string names, from the thickest most string to the thinnest the names are E A D G B E. An easy way to remember them is with the phrase EveryAugust Dogs Go Biting Elvis.

The Notes Of The Guitar

The Notes On The Piano

 Post to Facebook

 Post to Twitter

 Add to LinkedIn

The Guitar

The guitar is one of the most popular instruments of all time. It makes a very pleasing sound. It is small and light enough to carry around and it has a romantic appeal.

The guitar is very versatile. It can be played on it’s own or within a band. It’s tone complements the voice and it gives a good full backing to singing. It has a wide range of notes and makes a good solo instrument as well. It is extremely satisfying and entertaining to play for musicians of all levels of skill.

Classical guitars generally have nylon strings, whereas acoustic and electric guitars usually have steel strings. Each type of string has it’s own character which suits different kinds of music and playing styles.

Nylon strings give a much mellower tone and are easier on the fingers then steel strings. The 1st, 2nd and 3rd strings (the thinner strings) are usually a single strand of nylon. The thicker 4th, 5th and 6th strings are nylon strands wound with silver or bronze plated copper wire.

Steel strings give a brighter, louder sound. Although they are a little harder on the fingers then nylon strings, you soon become used to them. The thinner 1st and 2nd strings are usually plain nickel-plated steel as well as sometimes the 3rd. The other thicker ones are tightly wound with wire.

Guitars come in many shapes and sizes and although they may all appear similar must of them are made very differently. Steel string guitars are built much more strongly because the strings have alot more tension and force on the wood. You should never put steel strings on a classical or nylon string guitar because the instrument will be easily damaged.

Nor is it a good idea to put nylon strings on a steel string guitar because the guitar will sound dead and the strings will buzz. If you have any doubt whatsoever ask your local musical instrument retailer.

Your choice of a nylon or steel strung guitar should depend on the sound you prefer and the types of music you want to play.

Classical And Flamenco Guitars

Sometimes known as Spanish guitars, these instruments are very suitable for Classical Style solo playing Flamenco Music and for accompanying singers. The nylon strings are plucked or strummed with the right-hand thumb or fingers – a pick is never used. The Flamenco Guitar is similar to the classical Guitar but has plates to protect the face of the guitar during golpe tapping.

Round-Hole Steel Strung Guitars

The most common type of Acoustic guitar found in North America, these all-round instruments are used for most popular guitar music; pretty much everything except Classical or Flamenco. They may be finger-picked, or played with a Guitar Pick. They are suitable for accompanying singing and playing with others. Pick-ups may be added to those guitars for playing with an amplifier.

The Jumbo is a Round-hole Guitar with an extra large body which gives a deep bass sound.

The 12-string Guitar is similar to the Jumbo, but is a more specialized instrument. It is not recommend for absolute beginners.

Semi Acoustic Guitars

These very slim guitars give enough acoustic (un-amplified) sound for practicing, but are otherwise played with an amplifier. They are lighter than Solid Guitars and often have a better tone when amplified.

Cello Guitars are similar but have a thicker body. They are played with or without an amplifier and give a chunky rhythm sound.

Electric Guitars

Electric Guitars are only played with an amplifier, as they have no real acoustic sound. They are made in various shapes, styles and sizes and usually come with a solid body. You can also use effects pedals and different types of contraptions to alter the sound.

Semi-Acoustic and Solid Body Guitars have lower action then an Acoustic or Classical Guitar, and are ideal for fast ‘electric’ playing – Jazz, Rock, Pop, etc.

Electric guitars are generally played with a guitar pick.

efore You Buy: Choosing The Right Guitar

Choosing the instrument you play is always an important decision. If you are buying your first guitar, the decision is more difficult because you may not know where to start or what to look for. So, before you do anything, read these friendly words of advice.

First let us dispel the popular, but completely wrong belief that “any guitar will do for learning to play”. Your first guitar should be carefully chosen to be fairly easy to play and tune. It should also be versatile enough for you to be able to play different kinds of music on it.

If you already have a guitar and want to know if it is suitable for playing, keep reading. An old guitar will need checking very carefully. Old instruments can be very good – or very bad. The old guitar which has been around the house for years may well have so many things wrong with it that it could be almost impossible to play and not worth repairing.

If this is the case, or if the guitar is not the right type for the music you wish to play, you should look around for another instrument. If your guitar seems okay, ask a guitar playing friend or your music shop to check it out before trying to play it yourself.

Classical, Acoustic Or Electric?

Choose the type of guitar which best suits the type of music you wish to play. Do not buy a nylon strung instrument simply because it will be easier on your fingers. If you want to play in a band or with a group at some point you will need an instrument that can project, either an electric guitar or an acoustic guitar. These are the types of guitars most commonly used in popular music in North American.

If you are leaning more towards Classical or Flamenco music the choice must be for nylon strings as these styles require it. Guitars for both types are suitable for accompanying singing. If this is the only thing you want to do, choose the guitar with the sound you prefer.

Go Window Shopping Or Internet Surfing

Before you decide on anything go window shopping to see what is available and get an idea of the different prices. Try going to different stores and viewing and trying as many guitars as possible.

Weekdays are a good time to go to a music shop because the staff is more likely to give you more time. If the store is not busy, ask to be given a demonstration of guitars in the price range you can afford. If you are undecided about steel or nylon-strung guitars, ask to hear one of each. However, do not be pressured into buying before you have visited several stores and compared as many different guitars as possible.

Secondhand Guitars

These can be an excellent buy – if you find a good one. However, unless you are an expert, it is unwise to buy a guitar from anyone but a well known guitar store. You may find bargains offered all over the place but unless you know the value of the instrument and how it has been built it is best to stay away from these. If you are considering a secondhand guitar, make sure you get someone who is an experienced guitar player to check it over for you.

Size And Weight

If buying acoustic, avoid heavy guitars. As a general rule, the more wood there is in an acoustic guitar, the poorer its volume and tone are likely to be. Compare the weight of several guitars of the same type and size before you decide to buy. The lightest guitar will usually be the best.

Steel strung acoustics are heavier then nylon (or classical guitars) but their method of construction and their louder strings compensate for this. On the whole, smaller bodied steel strung guitars are a better buy in the lower price ranges. Large guitars, such as Jumbos have to be very carefully designed and very well made if they are to be any good, and this makes them more expensive. If you want a Jumbo, choose very carefully and compare the sound and weight of several.

The weight and size of Solid-body electrics and Semi-Acoustic guitars depends on the number of pick-ups and type of design. It does not affect the sound, but a very heavy instrument may be tiring to play and a burden to carry around.

Please note, 3/4 size guitars are for small children only. They are not recommended for adults, or anyone over the age of ten or eleven years.

Appearance

Try to avoid selecting a guitar just because it looks good. How it sounds and plays is far more important. Fancy decoration does not make a guitar sound better, but it does make it more expensive. In fact, too much plastic or decoration on a guitar may spoil the tone and reduce the volume.

Checklist: Before You Buy

 Check that the fingerboard is straight and the frets all the same height by laying a straight edge over the frets along the fingerboard. Look over the bridge and up along the neck of the guitar to see if it is warped or twisted.

 Check that the strings are the correct height above the fingerboard. At the ‘nut’ the strings should be about 1/16” (1.5mm) high, and about 1/8” (3mm) high at the 12th fret. If the strings are too high, the guitar will be hard to play. If they are too low, the strings will buzz the frets.

 Play every note by pressing each string behind every fret with a left hand finger while you pluck the string with your right thumb – each note should sound clearly. Any rattling or buzzing noises when the guitar is played could mean trouble.

 Look for worn frets on secondhand guitars – particularly the 1st to 5th frets under the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd strings. Some wear is normal, but deep depressions in the frets mean the guitar may be inaccurate, difficult to play and tune, and may buzz unless it is re-fretted.

 Make sure all six strings are on the guitar. Check each tuning machine by gently turning its peg a little, to if it adjusts the string to which it is attached. Make sure each string is wound in the right direction on the correct tuning machine. If any are incorrect, ask for them to be changed around and the guitar re-tuned. If any strings seem old or worn, ask for a new set to be put on, and the guitar put in tune.

 Examine the face, bridge, sides, head, neck and heel for cracks or splits. On ‘Classical’ or Round-hole Guitars, there should not be any gaps where the bridge is glued to the face of the guitar. If the guitar is seriously dented or looks as though it may have been dropped or badly repaired, it could be a poor risk.

If there is anything seriously wrong, do not buy the guitar, at least until it has been corrected or repaired. In most cases, you will be best advised to look for another instrument, even though this may delay your having a guitar.

When you buy your guitar ask for a full written receipt and keep it in a safe place – you may need it for insurance or Customs if you travel.

You should also buy the strongest guitar case you can afford to protect your instrument. A hard case made of wood, fiberglass or fiberboard is best for expensive guitars, but a soft case or even a thick polytheen bad is better than nothing.

If you are a beginner, ask if the guitar is in tune before you leave the shop, and be careful not to knock it on the way home.

There may be alot of information here, but if you follow these suggestions and checks you should end up with a decent instrument that will be fun to play for a long time.

Guitar Technique

All other instrumentalists learn early on to play with 100% control does not come naturally. For one reason or another alot of guitar players don’t develop great technique. Many hours of study and practice are necessary, and you can practice to your heart’s content but if your posture and hand positions are awkward it’s going to work against you, and take longer.

Like my favorite uncle used to say “Practice doesn’t make perfect, perfect practice makes perfect”. It is important to be comfortable when you are playing. And learning how to sit, how to finger a chord or note properly, how to pick accurately can go a long way in developing some skill.

Some guitarists are natural and develop their own technique; however this doesn’t work for everyone. Here are some loose guidelines that will help get you on the right track.

Your Strap

Don’t be holding the guitar up, that is the strap’s job. If you are sitting then it is the job of your knee. You want your hands to be free to fret and strum. Try and have your strap adjusted to the same height. Learning to play guitar in a consistent position will help alot.

Alot of guitar teachers will tell you the guitar has to be in an exact certain position, I don’t completely agree with this maxim as everyone is different. Bodies come in different shapes and sizes and so do guitars. So experiment, and observe your body and position when you are playing. Pay attention to your arms and hands especially, but keep in mind your whole body plays a role.

Your Posture

 Your body works alot better when your spine is straight so sit upright and slightly forward

 Try to sit in the same chair every time you practice (or if you prefer to stand with a guitar strap, stand in the same position)

 Focus on what you are doing, and check your posture and body position, try not to develop any awkward habits

 Try not to slouch

 Don’t lay the guitar flat on your lap

 Don’t rest your left forearm on your left knee

 Don’t push the neck way out in front of you

 Be careful of having too much tension, and try to relax when you play; alot of people play with alot of tension you should be pretty loose and relaxed when you play, it shouldn’t be all pain

The Invisible Thumb

In most situations your thumb should be invisible to anyone standing in from of you. Check in a mirror if you are unsure if this is the case. Yes, some of the best guitar players in the world (Hendrix is one example) have used their thumbs to great success, but you should probably leave advanced techniques like these until later in your development.

Generally keep your thumb in hitchhiking position, pointed away from you with the ball of the thumb in the center of the neck. Your thumb will more than likely move around when you play, especially if you are fretting awkwardly shaped guitar chords. But for the most part try to keep it in this center position.

he C Chord

You are now ready to learn your first chord. A chord is a combination of 2 or more notes that sound good together, in other words, they harmonize. The following few lessons will quickly get you on the road to chord formation, and you don’t even need to know anything about musical theory to begin practicing.

Dozens of notable musicians have made their way to rock stardom with little or no musical theory. For now just concentrate on getting your fingers in the correct positions, the rest will come with practice and time.

The chord we’ve selected to start you on is the chord of C Major, or popularly known as C. This chord is used widely and will relate to many others that you will learn later on. The black dots in the diagram indicate the position for each finger. Take your finger and place it just behind the fret indicated. If necessary use your right hand to help put your fingers in place.

The C Chord is formed like this:

 Index finger just behind the first fret on the second string (B).

 Middle finger, just behind the 2nd fret on the forth string (D).

 Ring finger behind the third fret on the 5th string (A).

 The first and third string are played open, whereas the 6th string is not played at all.

Strumming

Now that you know how to finger the C Chord, let’s strum it. To start out use all downstrokes. And when you are strumming make sure hit only 5 of the 6 strings. If you look at the diagram to the right you will see that you shouldn’t play the low e string (or the thickest string on the guitar). Make sure when you strum that you count it evenly in sets of 4. In the below diagram the D stands for downstrum and the count underneath should be followed evenly. This is common notation for demonstrating strumming patterns.

If you are just starting out, or if you struggle you may want to count the strumming pattern out loud. A good sense of timing takes a long time to develop but is very important later on when you get into more advanced strumming patterns.

D D D D

1 + 2 + 3 + 4

This lesson explains the most popular fretting for a C Major Chord. Because the guitar has so many frets on it, there are multiple ways to finger any chord. Click here if you would like to see some other C Major Shapes.

 Post to Facebook

 Post to Twitter

 Add to LinkedIn

 Post to Google+

 Add to Google Bookmarks

 Post to StumbleUpon

 The Guitar

 Guitar Types

 The Parts of the Guitar

 Before You Buy

 Guitar Care

 The Basics

 Basic Technique

 The C Chord

 Guitar Notes

 F Major

 G Major

 E String Notes

 E Minor

 The Scale of C Major

 How To Read Guitar Tab

 Exercises

 The Finger Squeeze

 Digits of Steel

 Music Theory

 Sharps or Flats?

 Guitar Scales

 Guitar Chords

 Strumming And Picking

 Travis Picking 101

 Finger Picking Pattern #1

 Using a Pick

The Names Of Musical Notes

Why Are They Called Sharps And Flats?

Take the note between G and A. This note can be called either G# or A . And just so you know the symbol for sharp is # and the symbol for flat is .

There are 2 places in the musical alphabet where there are no sharps or flats — betweenE and F, and between B and C. You can see this clearly below (the sharp notes on a piano are black).

The Notes Of The Guitar

The Notes On The Piano

F Major

The Chord of F Major is one of the trickiest to learn at first, but once you’ve cracked it you will progress alot faster. Like C it’s usually known as just F. Here’s how it is formed:

 Index finger across the first fret of all the strings.

 Middle finger just behind the second fret of the third string (G).

 Ring finger finger just behind the third fret on the fifth string

 The pinky finger just behind the third fret of the fouth string (D).

Strumming The F With The C

The great thing about the F Chord is it is the brother of the C Chord, meaning that they sound great together. Using the diagram below and the audio file, practice switching between them. Remember too keep the count as even as possible. It may help you to count out loud.

If you are just starting out you might first think that the change is impossible, but believe me it isn’t. Just keep practicing daily. If you get frustrated take a break. You will get there eventually; it’s just a matter of hard work. Once you get to the end of the pattern below, start over and keep repeating it until your fingers start bleeding or you get completely bored! These chords will come in handy later on. They are so widely used that learning them and a few others will open the possibility of playing thousands of songs.

F C

D D D D D D D D

1 + 2 + 3 + 4 1 + 2 + 3 + 4

This lesson teaches the most popular F Major chord shape. Every chord can be played in different positions on the fretboard, click here for more F Major diagrams.

G Major

The G Chord has a slightly differently look then the F or C chords, mostly because it is formed in ‘reverse’, with the first and second fingers going across the neck, and the third finger held back.

Here’s how it is formed:

 Index finger behind the 2nd fret on the 5th string (A).

 Middle finger just behind the 3rd fret on the bottom string (E).

 Ring finger just behind the third finger on the 1st string (E).

 Note: You must arch your index and middle fingers to avoid brushing the adjacent strings

The Notes On The E String

A basic knowledge of notes on the fretboard and their position is helpful to any guitarist. Gradually we will introduce notes in the first position. First position is the first 4 frets of the guitar. The first 3 notes we will introduce are on the high E string (thickest). E, F, G.

Here is how fingerings are represented on the fretboard:

 The number 1 repersents the index finger.

 The number 2 repersents the middle finger.

 The number 3 repersents the ring finger.

 The number 4 repersents the ring finger.

 The number 0 is an open note, i.e. you just play the string without a finger on the fretboard

E, F, G Note Exercise

Try to pick this little exercise evenly. And try some other combinations of these notes, saying the names of each note as you play. This will help you learn the note names, as well as their positions on the guitar. Note exercises will also help you to loosen your fingers.

Basic Musical Symbols

This is a quarter note. The quarter note has the same timing as one down strum, both are worth one count.

The 4/4 Time Signature: The top number tells us how many of the specified notes are in a bar and the bottom number tells us what duration (ie: how long) that specified note is. For example in 4/4 Time the top number tells us there are 4 notes in a bar and the bottom number tells us that each note is a quater of the length of the bar, or more simply put a quarter note. Therefore, we can tell that a song written with a 4/4 time signature is made up of bars (musical units a song is divided up into) which contain 4 quarter note long beats.

Guitar Tablature: Under the musical notes you will notice a method of notating music called tablature, as known as just TABfor short. Tablature is a method of indicating the position of notes on the fretboard. There are six ‘tab’ lines, each representing once of the six strings of the guitar. When a number is placed on one of the notes, it indicates the fret location of a note. You can read the time of tablature by following the count written beneath it. Although there is not nessesarly always a count beneath it.

The Chord Of E Minor

Our first chord that is not a major chord is the chord of E Minor; generally written as Em. The minor chords are often known as the ‘mood’ chords, because they carry a sad, resonant sound, as opposed to the bright or more forceful sound of a major chord. The Em chord also works with C Major, F Major and G Major.

You’ll be relieved to know that Em is one of the easiest chords, only requring 2 fingers.

 Place the index finger behind the 2nd fret of the 5th String (A).

 Place the middle finger behind the 2nd fret of the 4th String (D).

Strum this chord and notice the slightly sombre sound. This chord can be played with the major chords of C, F and G, which you already know if you have been following these lessons.

C Major Guitar Scale

So now your probably wondering if your fingers are going to toughen up enough to play theF Chord. Don’t worry, they will. But you have to stick with it if you really want to learn.

So many attics, basements and garages are full of barely used guitars, only because it is not an easy instrument to master. So keep in mind that if you want to be a good guitarist the best thing you can do is practice, there are no fast easy fixes. Rome wasn’t built in a day.

Now you might have been wondering, if the Em was so easy to learn why wasn’t it the first chord I learned. Surely when you were trying to fret the F Major you we’re wondering there must be easier chords to play then this?

And the answer is yes, but few are as important and widely used as C, F, and G. Once you know these 3 chords you can play a wealth of songs; in the millions. This is why these chords were chosen to start you out on, because the more you enjoy playing the more you will stay dedicated to learning. And I guarantee you there is a song out there that you love that has these 3 chords in it.

These 3 chords did not combine by some magical force. There is an exact science to it all. When you play these 3 chords together or 4 if you include the Em you just learned, you are playing in the Key of C.

It can be important to know what key you are playing in, especially if you are playing or improvising with other musicians. Before you can start playing with other people you need to know what key it’s in, because this will tell you what chords and notes you can use and sound good.

We’ve seen how music consists of 12 notes: A A# B C C# D D# E F F# G G#. A# is also known as B , D# is also known as E ; and so on.

There is a major key based on each of these 12 musical notes — A Major, D# Major and so on. Each of these keys consists of an 8 note scale. You probably learned it in elementary school, doh, re, mi, fah, soh, la, ti, doh. Every major scale consists of this pattern it looks like this:

tone tone semitone tone tone tone semitone

C ^ D ^ E ^ F ^ G ^ A ^ B ^ C

doh ^ re ^ mi ^ fah ^ soh ^ la ^ ti ^ doh

All the chords in the Key of C Major consist of some combination of these notes, and the scale of C Major consists of all of them.

Exercise: The Scale Of C Major

Here is what the C scale looks like on a fretboard, due to the amount of notes there are on a guitar there are other ways to play the C scale, but we will stick to the first 5 frets of the fretboard for now. When practicing this scale, you can either count out loud, 1, 2, 3, 4 (should all be even) or if you want to learn the notes you can alternately say the names of the note as you play them. The bottom part of this diagram shows you what finger to fret the guitar with.

Picking

You can pick them all with downstrokes as well as down and up strokes. Just make sure if you are picking up and down to do it evenly. Up, Down, Up, Down. Once you get to the highest C on the G string then make your way back in reverse. This scale should sound like ‘doh, re, mi, fah, soh, la, ti, doh’.

Try to practice this scale at least 50 times in a row if you can. The best way to train your fingers is through repetition. Take your time and master it, a veteran bluesman used to tell me, “The slower you go, the faster you will get there”.

Reading Guitar Tab

Guitar tablature (tab for short) is a system of notation that graphically represents strings and frets of the guitar fretboard. Each note is indicated by placing a number which indicates the fret to play, on the appropriate string. With these easy instructions you will be able to understand how to read and write guitar tab in 5 minutes.

The Basics Of Reading Guitar Tab

To start out, tabs are written in lines, each line representing a string on the guitar. The thickest string being the bottom most line and the thinnest string being the topmost.

e--------------------------------

B--------------------------------

G--------------------------------

D--------------------------------

A--------------------------------

E--------------------------------

Numbers are then placed on these lines to represent finger positions on the guitar fret board. If you read the diagram below you would play this on a guitar by putting your finger just behind the 2nd fret on the 5th string (or the second thickest string). As musical notes this would read as follows B B B C# B A. The ‘zero’ represents playing an open string. So in this case you would play the A open with no finger position on the fretboard.

e-------------------------------

B-------------------------------

G-------------------------------

D-------------------------------

A--2--2--2--4--2--0------------

E-------------------------------

How To Read Guitar Tab Chords

To tab a chord the notes would be placed in a vertical line upon the horizontal ones. This diagram represents a C Chord. You would strum the bottom 5 strings of the guitar in one motion if you were to read this tab properly.

e--0----------------------------

B--1----------------------------

G--0----------------------------

D--2----------------------------

A--3----------------------------

E-------------------------------

And this one you would strum the ‘C Chord’ three times.

e--0--0--0---------------------

B--1--1--1---------------------

G--0--0--0---------------------

D--2--2--2---------------------

A--3--3--3---------------------

E------------------------------

The one shortcoming of guitar tab is it doesn’t usually represent how long to hold a note for, or rhythm very well. Although some good tab writers will represent it by how much space is between each note. Tab works best if you listen to the song for guidance on timing then read the notes and practice it. Here for example is the timing of ‘Day Tripper’ by the Beatles, note the distances between the numbers, the first ’0′ would ring slightly longer then the next 4 notes and the distance between D2 and D0 would also indicate a break in timing:

e-----------------------------

B-----------------------------

G-----------------------------

D-----------2---0---4---0-2--

A---------2-------2---2-------

E-0---3-4---------------------

Tablature Symbols

The numbers don’t really describe the subtle techniques that a guitarist can execute, these are the tablature symbols that represent various techniques.

 h – hammer on

 p – pull off

 b – bend string up

 r – release bend

 / – slide up

 \ – slide down

 v – vibrato (sometimes written as ~)

 t – right hand tap

 s – legato slide

 S – shift slide

 – natural harmonic

 [n] – artificial harmonic

 n(n) – tapped harmonic

 tr – trill

 T – tap  TP – trem. picking

 PM – palm muting

 \n/ – tremolo bar dip; n = amount to dip

 \n – tremolo bar down

 n/ – tremolo bar up

 /n\ – tremolo bar inverted dip

 = – hold bend; also acts as connecting device for hammers/pulls

 <> – volume swell (louder/softer)

 x – on rhythm slash represents muted slash

 o – on rhythm slash represents single note slash

A Hammer On

A hammer on is executed by picking a note and then hammering done with the fretting hand on the second note. The second note isn’t actually picked but kind of echos the first one. Here is an example of how hammer ons are written in tab:

e----------------------5h7----

B------------------5h7--------

G--------------5h7------------

D----------5h7----------------

A------5h7--------------------

E--5h7------------------------

A Pull Off

A pull off is the opposite of a hammer on, so the first note is played again then the fretting hand pulls the finger off and lets the one fretted behind it play.

e----------------------7p5----

B------------------7p5--------

G--------------7p5------------

D----------7p5----------------

A------7p5--------------------

E--7p5------------------------

A Bend

A bend is represented by the symbol ‘b’, this is where the fretting hand actually bends the string to give a wobbly effect.

e-----------------------------

B-----------------------------

G--7b----7b-------------------

D--------------7b----7b-------

A-----------------------------

E-----------------------------

A Release Bend

A release bend is represented by the symbol ‘r’, this is just like a bend, but it tells you when to release the bend and go to the next note.

e-----------------------------

B-----------------------------

G--7r5---7r5------------------

D--------------7r5---7r5------

A-----------------------------

E-----------------------------

A Slide-Up

A slide up is represented by the symbol ‘/’. You would play the first note on 7 then slide the finger that is holding that note up to 9.

e-----------------------------

B-----------------------------

G--7/9---7/9------------------

D--------------7/9---7/9------

A-----------------------------

E-----------------------------

A Slide-Down

Opposite of a Slide Up, slide down is represented by the symbol ‘\’. You would play the first note on 7 then slide the finger that is holding that note down to 5.

e-----------------------------

B-----------------------------

G--7/5---7/5------------------

D--------------7/5---7/5------

A-----------------------------

E-----------------------------

Vibrato

Vibrato is like a constant rhythmic bending of the string. You do a bend up and bend down quickly to create a moving sound. It is usually represented by ‘v’ or ‘~’.

e-----------------------------

B-----------------------------

G--7v-------------------------

D--------------------7~~~-----

A-----------------------------

E-----------------------------

Tapping

Tapping is much like a hammer-on but you don’t strum any notes. Just tap the notes on the fret board with your fretting hand.

e-----------------------------

B-----------------------------

G--7t---7t---7t---------------

D-----------------------------

A-----------------------------

E-----------------------------

The Finger Squeeze

Just a general warning, the warm up you are about to learn can be very boring and strenuous. But if you practice this daily it will be the quickest way for you to get your fingers strong and able enough to pull off any chord shape or awkward fingering. The finger squeeze is a strengthening exercise designed to help you develop finger strength and control over the fretboard as well as finger independence. It should be practiced at the very start of your session for maximum benefits.

 Fret the 1st fret of the 6th string on your guitar (F) with your index finger. Use maximum pressure, and maintain it for an even count of 4.

 Without moving your index finger add your middle finger to the 2nd fret (F#). Hold it for 4.

 Again, without moving your first 2 fingers add your ring finger to the 3rd fret (G). Hold it for 4.

 Now, maintaining pressure on all the strings add your pinky to the 4th fret (G#).

 Maintain the pressure on the 2nd, 3rd and 4th frets of the 6th string, move your first finger down to the 5th String (A). Once again, maintain maximum pressure and hold for a count of 4. Add the middle finger, hold for a count of 4, then the ring finger, hold for a count of 4, then the pinky. And so on. See the diagrams below for clarification, read the grids left to right.

Once you finish this exercise you can then start over from the 2nd fret of the 6th string, and continue up the fretboard repeating this exercise. This could take a while to master, but it will help strengthen your fingers to an unimaginable strength. Keep in mind that you should always be exerting maximum pressure and counting to an even 4. As well make sure you keep the ball of your thumb close to the center of the neck.

Strengthen Your Fingers And Play Any Barre Chord

This exercise is purely to strengthen your fingers up. If you have trouble playing barre chords then this is the place to start. It might be painful initially but if you do this enough, every time you practice you will be playing any chord you want in no time. This is the type of exercise that can easily be done well you are sitting in front of the TV or talking on the phone.

It should be done very slowly, stopping to hold each position for a count of 4. Starting from the thinnest string you are going to barre each string, count to 4, then add another one and repeat. Here is an example:

 Step 1: Barre the thinnest string with the index finger, hold for a count of 4.

 Step 2: Barre the thinnest string plus the second thinnest string with the index finger and hold for 4.

 Step 3: Barre the 4 thinnest strings with the index finger and hold for a count of 4.

 Step 4: Get the idea now? Use the diagrams below for more direction.

Once you are done, work your way back done the fretboard like in the diagrams below (read them from left to right). And then when you are done with the index finger, you can move to the middle finger, then the ring finger and then the pinky! That one will be tough…

If your fingers are really weak, you might want to start on a fret further up the neck. Starting on the 5th Fret for example, can be much easier then starting on the 1st Fret. I would try different places and see where you are most comfortable, then over time move closer to the first fret. This is how I learned to play barre chords, so I can assure you it totally works – it just takes some gumption, and don’t worry about your fingers always hurting, that will go away eventually once you build up enough strength in them.

The important thing is to stick with it. If your fingers get sore or tired, then take a break and come back later. Eventually over time you will build the required strength to play almost any barre chord.

Sharps Or Flats?

As we know a sharp/flat note can be called either sharp or flat. So how do we know which one it should be?

The simple explanation is the name you call it by is dependent on the key you are in. Here’s how it works. You can’t have two notes with similar names in the same key. So for instance you can’t have G and G , or G and G#, or G and G#. So if there is G in the scale/key the note G /F# will be called F#.

On top of that, you can’t have both sharps and flats in the same key. A key may include up to six sharp notes (the key of F# Major) or five flat notes (The Key of D Major). But never both.

For this reason, keys with sharps are sometimes known as sharp keys, and keys with flats are sometimes known as flat keys.

One final point. In the diagram below you may notice that in the keys of F# Major and D# Minor there’s a note called E#. This is the note we usually call F, but because there’s already an F note (F#) in the key, it’s called E#. This is the only time this ever occurs.

Don’t worry too much about what you call a sharp or a flat. If you refer to a chord or note as D# when it should be and E , any musician will know what you mean. But for the visitor who wants to know the real answer, hopefully this page helps.

Major Keys

Note in Scale Primary Triad Chord Scale (Read down from root note)

Root Root Major Chord C D D E E F F# G A A B B

Second Minor Chord D E E F F# G G# A B B C C#

Third Minor Chord E F F# G G# A A# B C C# D D#

Fourth Major Chord F G G A A B B C D D E E

Fifth Major Chord G A A B B C C# D E E F F#

Sixth Relative Minor Chord A B B C C# D D# E F F# G G#

Seventh - B C C# D D# E E# F# G G# A A#

Guitar Scales Explained

On a standard guitar there are generally 6 strings and 21 frets. For the purpose of this lesson we are just going to work with the first 12 frets of the guitar to explain some basic guitar music theory. If a guitar is in standard guitar tuning the notes on it’s fretboard will look like this:

open string 3rd fret 5th fret 7th fret 9th fret 12th fret

E F F# G G# A A# B C C# D D# E

A A# B C C# D D# E F F# G G# A

D D# E F F# G G# A A# B C C# D

G G# A A# B C C# D D# E F F# G

B C C# D D# E F F# G G# A A# B

E F F# G G# A A# B C C# D D# E

Tones And Semitones

Tones and semitones are the basic building blocks of musical theory.

1 tone is equal to 2 frets on the guitar fret board, whereas as semitone is equal to one fret. For example if you are on the 1st fret of the A string a semitone up would be the second fret or A#, and a full tone up from the second fret would be fret 4, also known as C#.

How Scales Are Formed

Scales always have a pattern. For example, the pattern of every major scale is consistent and it is as follows:

Tone-Tone-Semitone-Tone-Tone-Tone-Semitone

As an example the notes in the C scale are shown below:

tone tone semitone tone tone tone semitone

C ^ D ^ E ^ F ^ G ^ A ^ B ^ C

How Chords Are Formed

In any give key certain chords are more common then others. For example in the key of C, the chords C, F and G are usually present, and quite often they are complemented with Am, Dm, and Em. The reason for this is each key has it’s own set of chords constructed from the notes of it’s scale.This is basic music theoryand will work starting with any note. We will start with C, consider the scale of C major:

C D E F G A B C

I II III IV V VI VII VIII

Chords are constructed by notes that are a 3rd apart in it’s scale. So the following positions would give us the root major chord of a key:

I – II – III

Using the C major scale written above, chords can be constructed by placing 2 third intervals above each note. So a C chord has C, E and G in it.

Here are the chords of the key of C and how they are constructed:

Chord

Constructed C Dm Em F G Am Bo

C Scale C D E F G A B

III E F G A B C D

V G A B C D E F

The chords are always named according to their root note. They are chords in the key of C because they only contain notes from the C scale. This method of constructing chords can be applied to form the chords of any major scale. The result will always produce the chords of whatever root note you start with.

Scale Note I II III IV V VI VII

Chord Constructed major minor minor major major minor diminished

Chord Substitutions

The chords studied so far involve the placement of 3 notes. The root note of the chord and the 2 third interval notes above it. This method of building chords can be extended by adding another note illustrated below. These chords could then be substituted for chords in the key of C, to color things up.

Chord

Constructed Cmaj7 Dm7 Em7 Fmaj7 G7 Am7 Bo7*

C Scale C D E F G A B

III E F G A B C D

VII B C D E F G A

V G A B C D E F

From this example chords for any key can be substituted by using the chart below:

Scale Note I II III IV V VI VII

Chord Constructed major seventh minor seventh minor seventh major seventh seventh minor seventh half diminished seventh

How Chords Are Formed

C D E F G A B C

I II III IV V VI VII VIII

Chords are constructed by notes that are a 3rd apart in it’s scale. So the following positions would give us the root major chord of a key:

I – II – III

Using the C major scale written above, chords can be constructed by placing 2 third intervals above each note. So a C chord has C, E and G in it.

Here are the chords of the key of C and how they are constructed:

Chord

Constructed C Dm Em F G Am Bo

C Scale C D E F G A B

III E F G A B C D

V G A B C D E F

Scale Note I II III IV V VI VII

Chord Constructed major minor minor major major minor diminished

Chord Substitutions

Chord

Constructed Cmaj7 Dm7 Em7 Fmaj7 G7 Am7 Bo7*

C Scale C D E F G A B

III E F G A B C D

VII B C D E F G A

V G A B C D E F

From this example chords for any key can be substituted by using the chart below:

Scale Note I II III IV V VI VII

Chord Constructed major seventh minor seventh minor seventh major seventh seventh minor seventh half diminished seventh

Travis Picking Deconstructed

You have probably heard it in a song before, as it is a widely used pattern in popular music.

Travis Picking is named after it’s creator; Merle Travis. It involves playing a steady bass note pattern with the thumb alternating between 2 bass notes. And is filled out by some syncopated rhythms with the other fingers, usually on the higher strings of the guitar.

For simplicities sake, we are going to start out with one guitar chord, which we are going to fret for the whole tutorial, all the focus here will be on the strumming hand. We will use a simple chord, A Minor. Once you are fretting A Minor all the attention for the reminder of this tutorial will be on the strumming/picking hand.

Step 1: Fret The Chord Of A Minor

1 + 2 + 3 + 4 +

| 0--------------- |

| 1--------------- |

| 2--------------- |

| 0--------------- |

Step 2: The Alternating Bass Notes

This is the foundation of this technique. First you must develop a steady rhythm with the alternating bass notes, plucking them with your thumb. Pluck the Open A first and then the 2nd Fret on the D String. At this point you should only be using your thumb plucking back and forth in a steady rhythm. It’s important that you get a rhythm of “1 and 2 and 3 and 4″, hitting the notes on the 1, 2, 3, 4; because as we add more notes the rhythm will be harder to keep.

| 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + | 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 +

| ---------------- | ---------------- |

| ----2-------2--- | ----2-------2--- |

| 0-------0------- | 0-------0------- |

| ---------------- | ---------------- |

Step 3: Adding A Pinch

This is called a pinch. As you pluck down on the A String with your thumb, you also pluck the 1st Fret of the B String with your middle finger.

| 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + | 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + |

| ---------------- | ---------------- |

| 1--------------- | 1--------------- |

| ---------------- | ---------------- |

| ----2-------2--- | ----2-------2--- |

| 0-------0------- | 0-------0------- |

| ---------------- | ---------------- |

Step 4: Your First Syncopation

Now here comes the fun part. We are going to add a note right between the alternating bass notes. Remember your rhythm should be the same. 1, 2, 3, 4 but there is an eighth note between the first 2 quarter beats, played with the index finger.

| 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + | 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 +

| ---------------- | ---------------- |

| 1--------------- | 1--------------- |

| --2------------- | --2------------- |

| ----2-------2--- | ----2-------2--- |

| 0-------0------- | 0-------0------- |

| ---------------- | ---------------- |

Step 5: Your Second Syncopation

Now you just basically keep adding notes. So after you hit the second alternating bass note you put another note in before the 3rd bass note; all the while keeping the rhythm intact. It helps to count out loud or tap your foot, “1 and 2 and 2 and 4 and…”.

| 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + | 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + |

| ---------------- | ---------------- |

| 1-----1--------- | 1-----1--------- |

| --2------------- | --2------------- |

| ----2-------2--- | ----2-------2--- |

| 0-------0------- | 0-------0------- |

| ---------------- | ---------------- |

Step 6: The Last Syncopation

Again we are adding another note between the 3rd and the 4th beat. Keep in mind that the 2 lowest notes are plucked with the thumb, the G String notes are always plucked with the middle finger and the B String notes are always plucked with the Index finger.

| 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + | 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + |

| ---------------- | ---------------- |

| 1-----1--------- | 1-----1--------- |

| --2-------2----- | --2-------2----- |

| ----2-------2--- | ----2-------2--- |

| 0-------0------- | 0-------0------- |

| ---------------- | ---------------- |

Your Finished

There you go. These are the basics of Travis Picking. The patterns and chord changes can get alot more complex. The pinch and syncopation can change throughout a patterm. and you can combinine Travis Picking with other techniques such as hammer-ons to make it even more dynamic. But most patterns follow this basic technique. I suggest just sticking with one pattern until you master it, then look around for other patterns and songs to play that utilize this technique.

Finger Picking Pattern #1

This pattern involves the use of the thumb (p), index finger (i) and middle finger (m). You should play them in the following order:

p i m i – p i m i – p i m i – p i m i

You can just keep repeating the pattern on and on when you are practicing. The thumb will play the root bass note, the middle finger will play the 2nd string and the index finger will play the first string.

Hold the chord of G Major (shown in the diagram to the right) and play the pattern. Note, you can hold any chord you wish for this exercise, I’m just picking G because it’s a pretty popular chord.

| 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + | 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 +

| --------3------- | --------3------- |

| ----0-------0--- | ----0-------0--- |

| ---------------- | ---------------- |

| 3--------------- | 3--------------- |

Finger Picking With A Turn Around Chord Progression

You can also apply this pattern to a chord progression. Below I have tabbed out a simple Turn Around chord progression. The chords for this progression are G Major, E Minor, C Major and D Major. If you listen to the progression it goes down then kind of turns around when it hits the C Chord. Hence the name. Also note the thumb is picking the Root Bass Note of the chord. The root for each chord is G, E, C and D respectively.

| 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + | 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 +

| --------3------- | --------0------- |

| ----0-------0--- | ----0-------0--- |

| ---------------- | ---------------- |

| 3--------------- | 0--------------- |

| 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + | 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 +

| --------0------- | --------2------- |

| ----1-------1--- | ----3-------3--- |

| ---------------- | ---------------- |

| ---------------- | 0--------------- |

| 3--------------- | ---------------- |

| ---------------- | ---------------- |

Using A Guitar Pick

Originally picks or plectrums were made out of animal bone or tortoise shell. Today, most all picks are made out of plastic.

There are many different shapes, as well they vary in size and flexibility. It’s really a subjective thing but for the most part really hard picks are used for picking lead guitar and really soft flexible ones are used for strumming chords. Though it’s important to keep in mind when you are developing your technique and style that there isn’t one rule of thumb in how to pick or pluck a guitar.

If you are just starting out you might find a larger more flexible pick to be easier initially. The sound might not be as loud but there will be less resistance against the strings, thereby making it easier to strum. But definitely feel free to experiment especially if you have been playing for a long time.

Most guitar teachers will suggest holding the pick between the thumb and the first finger. Though depending on your finger size and style you might want to try holding it between your second finger and your thumb or holding the pick using both your first and second fingers and your thumb. Again this is a matter of personal choice and use develop and practice you will naturally find what works best for you, maybe you don’t even want to us a pick, maybe you prefer to finger pick like many guitarists.

The most important thing when plucking is the angle of the plectrum when it hits the strings. When holding a pick don’t clench it to tightly, you want your grip to be somewhat relaxed, not so relaxed that it will fly out of your hand but relaxed enough that your fist isn’t clenched white. The pick should be at a 90 degree angle when you play, so if the guitar is completely vertical the pick would be horizontal.

Try to get a sharp, clear sound when you play. Stick with it, and remember to keep focused on your right hand as much as your left hand even when learning new chord shapes. It’s easy to become satisfied with a lack lustre technique, but always keep your focus and try to get a clear tone, flexible wrist and a firm grip. But keep in mind to relax.

MOTION

Posted by quintustheresraj on March 13, 2013 at 2:25 AM

comments (0)

2. MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

In mechanics we are interested in trying to understand the motion of objects. In this chapter, the motion of objects in 1 dimension will be discussed. Motion in 1 dimension is motion along a straight line.

2.1. Position

The position of an object along a straight line can be uniquely identified by its distance from a (user chosen) origin. (see Figure 2.1). Note: the position is fully specified by 1 coordinate (that is why this a 1 dimensional problem).

Figure 2.1. One-dimensional position.

Figure 2.2. x vs. t graphs for various velocities.

For a given problem, the origin can be chosen at whatever point is convenient. For example, the position of the object at time t = 0 is often chosen as the origin. The position of the object will in general be a function of time: x(t). Figure 2.2. shows the position as a function of time for an object at rest, and for objects moving to the left and to the right.

The slope of the curve in the position versus time graph depends on the velocity of the object. See for example Figure 2.3. After 10 seconds, the cheetah has covered a distance of 310 meter, the human 100 meter, and the pig 50 meter. Obviously, the cheetah has the highest velocity. A similar conclusion is obtained when we consider the time required to cover a fixed distance. The cheetah covers 300 meter in 10 s, the human in 30 s, and the pig requires 60 s. It is clear that a steeper slope of the curve in the x vs. t graph corresponds to a higher velocity.

Figure 2.3. x vs. t graphs for various creatures.

2.2. Velocity

An object that changes its position has a non-zero velocity. The average velocity of an object during a specified time interval is defined as:

If the object moves to the right, the average velocity is positive. An object moving to the left has a negative average velocity. It is clear from the definition of the average velocity that depends only on the position of the object at time t = t1 and at time t = t2. This is nicely illustrated in sample problem 2-1 and 2-2.

Sample Problem 2-1

You drive a beat-up pickup truck down a straight road for 5.2 mi at 43 mi/h, at which point you run out of fuel. You walk 1.2 mi farther, to the nearest gas station, in 27 min (= 0.450 h). What is your average velocity from the time you started your truck to the time that you arrived at the station ?

The pickup truck initially covers a distance of 5.2 miles with a velocity of 43 miles/hour. This takes 7.3 minutes. After the pickup truck runs out of gas, it takes you 27 minutes to walk to the nearest gas station which is 1.2 miles down the road. When you arrive at the gas station, you have covered (5.2 + 1.2) = 6.4 miles, during a period of (7.3 + 27) = 34.3 minutes. Your average velocity up to this point is:

Sample Problem 2-2

Suppose you next carry the fuel back to the truck, making the round-trip in 35 min. What is your average velocity for the full journey, from the start of your driving to you arrival back at the truck with the fuel ?

It takes you another 35 minutes to walk back to your car. When you reach your truck, you are again 5.2 miles from the origin, and have been traveling for (34.4 + 35) = 69.4 minutes. At that point your average velocity is:

After this episode, you return back home. You cover the 5.2 miles again in 7.3 minutes (velocity equals 43 miles/hour). When you arrives home, you are 0 miles from your origin, and obviously your average velocity is:

The average velocity of the pickup truck which was left in the garage is also 0 miles/hour. Since the average velocity of an object depends only on its initial and final location and time, and not on the motion of the object in between, it is in general not a useful parameter. A more useful quantity is the instantaneous velocity of an object at a given instant. The instantaneous velocity is the value that the average velocity approaches as the time interval over which it is measured approaches zero:

For example: see sample problem 2-5.

The velocity of the object at t = 3.5 s can now be calculated:

2.3. Acceleration

The velocity of an object is defined in terms of the change of position of that object over time. A quantity used to describe the change of the velocity of an object over time is the acceleration a. The average acceleration over a time interval between t1 and t2 is defined as:

Note the similarity between the definition of the average velocity and the definition of the average acceleration. The instantaneous acceleration a is defined as:

From the definition of the acceleration, it is clear that the acceleration has the following units:

A positive acceleration is in general interpreted as meaning an increase in velocity. However, this is not correct. From the definition of the acceleration, we can conclude that the acceleration is positive if

This is obviously true if the velocities are positive, and the velocity is increasing with time. However, it is also true for negative velocities if the velocity becomes less negative over time.

2.4. Constant Acceleration

Objects falling under the influence of gravity are one example of objects moving with constant acceleration. A constant acceleration means that the acceleration does not depend on time:

Integrating this equation, the velocity of the object can be obtained:

where v0 is the velocity of the object at time t = 0. From the velocity, the position of the object as function of time can be calculated:

where x0 is the position of the object at time t = 0.

Note 1: verify these relations by integrating the formulas for the position and the velocity.

Note 2: the equations of motion are the basis for most problems (see sample problem 7).

Sample Problem 2-8

Spotting a police car, you brake a Porsche from 75 km/h to 45 km/h over a distance of 88m. a) What is the acceleration, assumed to be constant ? b) What is the elapsed time ? c) If you continue to slow down with the acceleration calculated in (a) above, how much time would elapse in bringing the car to rest from 75 km/h ? d) In (c) above, what distance would be covered ? e) Suppose that, on a second trial with the acceleration calculated in (a) above and a different initial velocity, you bring your car to rest after traversing 200 m. What was the total braking time ?

a) Our starting points are the equations of motion:

(1)

(2)

The following information is provided:

* v(t = 0) = v0 = 75 km/h = 20.8 m/s

* v(t1) = 45 km/h = 12.5 m/s

* x(t = 0) = x0 = 0 m (Note: origin defined as position of Porsche at t = 0 s)

* x(t1) = 88 m

* a = constant

From eq.(1) we obtain:

(3)

Substitute (3) in (2):

(4)

From eq.(4) we can obtain the acceleration a:

(5)

b) Substitute eq.(5) into eq.(3):

(6)

c) The car is at rest at time t2:

(7)

Substituting the acceleration calculated using eq.(5) into eq.(3):

(8)

d) Substitute t2 (from eq.(8)) and a (from eq.(5)) into eq.(2):

(9)

e) The following information is provided:

* v(t3) = 0 m/s (Note: Porsche at rest at t = t3)

* x(t = 0) = x0 = 0 m (Note: origin defined as position of Porsche at t = 0)

* x(t3) = 200 m

* a = constant = - 1.6 m/s2

Eq.(1) tells us:

(10)

Substitute eq.(10) into eq.(2):

(11)

The time t3 can now easily be calculated:

(12)

2.5. Gravitational Acceleration

A special case of constant acceleration is free fall (falling in vacuum). In problems of free fall, the direction of free fall is defined along the y-axis, and the positive position along the y-axis corresponds to upward motion. The acceleration due to gravity (g) equals 9.8 m/s2 (along the negative y-axis). The equations of motion for free fall are very similar to those discussed previously for constant acceleration:

where y0 and v0 are the position and the velocity of the object at time t = 0.

Example

A pitcher tosses a baseball straight up, with an initial speed of 25 m/s. (a) How long does it take to reach its highest point ? (b) How high does the ball rise above its release point ? (c) How long will it take for the ball to reach a point 25 m above its release point.

Figure 2.4. Vertical position of baseball as function of time.

a) Our starting points are the equations of motion:

The initial conditions are:

* v(t = 0) = v0 = 25 m/s (upwards movement)

* y(t = 0) = y0 = 0 m (Note: origin defined as position of ball at t = 0)

* g = 9.8 m/s2

The highest point is obtained at time t = t1. At that point, the velocity is zero:

The ball reaches its highest point after 2.6 s (see Figure 2.4).

b) The position of the ball at t1 = 2.6 s can be easily calculated:

c) The quation for y(t) can be easily rewritten as:

where y is the height of the ball at time t. This Equation can be easily solved for t:

Using the initial conditions specified in (a) this equation can be used to calculate the time at which the ball reaches a height of 25 m (y = 25 m):

t = 1.4 s

t = 3.7 s

Figure 2.5. Velocity of the baseball as function of time.

The velocities of the ball at these times are (see also Figure 2.5):

v(t = 1.4 s) = + 11.3 m/s

v(t = 3.7 s) = - 11.3 m/s

At t = 1.4 s, the ball is at y = 25 m with positive velocity (upwards motion). At t = 2.6 s, the ball reaches its highest point (v = 0). After t = 2.6 s, the ball starts falling down (negative velocity). At t= 3.7 s the ball is located again at y = 25 m, but now moves downwards.

________________________________________

Send comments, questions and/or suggestions via email to [email protected] and/or visit the home page of Frank Wolfs. 2. MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

2.1. Position

Figure 2.1. One-dimensional position.

Figure 2.2. x vs. t graphs for various velocities.

Figure 2.3. x vs. t graphs for various creatures.

2.2. Velocity

An object that changes its position has a non-zero velocity. The average velocity of an object during a specified time interval is defined as:

Sample Problem 2-1

Sample Problem 2-2

For example: see sample problem 2-5.

The velocity of the object at t = 3.5 s can now be calculated:

2.3. Acceleration

Note the similarity between the definition of the average velocity and the definition of the average acceleration. The instantaneous acceleration a is defined as:

From the definition of the acceleration, it is clear that the acceleration has the following units:

This is obviously true if the velocities are positive, and the velocity is increasing with time. However, it is also true for negative velocities if the velocity becomes less negative over time.

2.4. Constant Acceleration

Objects falling under the influence of gravity are one example of objects moving with constant acceleration. A constant acceleration means that the acceleration does not depend on time:

Integrating this equation, the velocity of the object can be obtained:

where v0 is the velocity of the object at time t = 0. From the velocity, the position of the object as function of time can be calculated:

where x0 is the position of the object at time t = 0.

Note 1: verify these relations by integrating the formulas for the position and the velocity.

Note 2: the equations of motion are the basis for most problems (see sample problem 7).

Sample Problem 2-8

a) Our starting points are the equations of motion:

(1)

(2)

The following information is provided:

* v(t = 0) = v0 = 75 km/h = 20.8 m/s

* v(t1) = 45 km/h = 12.5 m/s

* x(t = 0) = x0 = 0 m (Note: origin defined as position of Porsche at t = 0 s)

* x(t1) = 88 m

* a = constant

From eq.(1) we obtain:

(3)

Substitute (3) in (2):

(4)

From eq.(4) we can obtain the acceleration a:

(5)

b) Substitute eq.(5) into eq.(3):

(6)

c) The car is at rest at time t2:

(7)

Substituting the acceleration calculated using eq.(5) into eq.(3):

(8)

d) Substitute t2 (from eq.(8)) and a (from eq.(5)) into eq.(2):

(9)

e) The following information is provided:

* v(t3) = 0 m/s (Note: Porsche at rest at t = t3)

* x(t = 0) = x0 = 0 m (Note: origin defined as position of Porsche at t = 0)

* x(t3) = 200 m

* a = constant = - 1.6 m/s2

Eq.(1) tells us:

(10)

Substitute eq.(10) into eq.(2):

(11)

The time t3 can now easily be calculated:

(12)

2.5. Gravitational Acceleration

where y0 and v0 are the position and the velocity of the object at time t = 0.

Example

Figure 2.4. Vertical position of baseball as function of time.

a) Our starting points are the equations of motion:

The initial conditions are:

* v(t = 0) = v0 = 25 m/s (upwards movement)

* y(t = 0) = y0 = 0 m (Note: origin defined as position of ball at t = 0)

* g = 9.8 m/s2

The highest point is obtained at time t = t1. At that point, the velocity is zero:

The ball reaches its highest point after 2.6 s (see Figure 2.4).

b) The position of the ball at t1 = 2.6 s can be easily calculated:

c) The quation for y(t) can be easily rewritten as:

where y is the height of the ball at time t. This Equation can be easily solved for t:

Using the initial conditions specified in (a) this equation can be used to calculate the time at which the ball reaches a height of 25 m (y = 25 m):

t = 1.4 s

t = 3.7 s

Figure 2.5. Velocity of the baseball as function of time.

The velocities of the ball at these times are (see also Figure 2.5):

v(t = 1.4 s) = + 11.3 m/s

v(t = 3.7 s) = - 11.3 m/s

________________________________________

Send comments, questions and/or suggestions via email to [email protected] and/or visit the home page of Frank Wolfs.

DIMENSION

Posted by quintustheresraj on March 13, 2013 at 2:20 AM

comments (0)

dimension

dimension, in physics, an expression of the character of a derived quantity in relation to fundamental quantities, without regard for its numerical value. In any system of measurement, such as the metric system, certain quantities are considered fundamental, and all others are considered to be derived from them. Systems in which length (L), time (T), and mass (M) are taken as fundamental quantities are called absolute systems. In an absolute system force is a derived quantity whose dimensions are defined by Newton's second law of motion as ML/T2, in terms of the fundamental quantities. Pressure (force per unit area) then has dimensions M/LT2; work or energy (force times distance) has dimensions ML2/T2; and power (energy per unit time) has dimensions ML2/T3. Additional fundamental quantities are also defined, such as electric charge and luminous intensity. The expression of any particular quantity in terms of fundamental quantities is known as dimensional analysis and often provides physical insight into the results of a mathematical calculation.

Read more: dimension, in physics — Infoplease.com http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0815532.html#ixzz21pV3CBWOWork, Energy and Power: Problem Set Overview

This set of 32 problems targets your ability to use equations related to work and power, to calculate the kinetic, potential and total mechanical energy, and to use the work-energy relationship in order to determine the final speed, stopping distance or final height of an object. The more difficult problems are color-coded as blue problems.

Work

Work results a force acts upon an object to cause a displacement (or a motion) or in some instances, to hinder a motion. Three variables are of importance in this definition - force, displacement, and the extent to which the force causes or hinders the displacement. Each of these three variables find their way into the equation for work. That equation is:

Work = Force • Displacement • Cosine(theta)

W = F • d • cos(theta)

Since the standard metric unit of force is the Newton and the standard meteric unit of displacement is the meter, then the standard metric unit of work is a Newton•meter, defined as a Joule and abbreviated with a J.

The most complicated part of the work equation and work calculations is the meaning of the angle theta in the above equation. The angle is not just any stated angle in the problem; it is the angle between the F and the d vectors. In solving work problems, one must always be aware of this definition - theta is the angle between the force and the displacement which it causes. If the force is in the same direction as the displacement, then the angle is 0 degrees. If the force is in the opposite direction as the displacement, then the angle is 180 degrees. If the force is up and the displacement is to the right, then the angle is 90 degrees. This is summarized in the graphic below.

Power

Power is defined as the rate at which work is done upon an object. Like all rate quantities, power is a time-based quantity. Power is related to how fast a job is done. Two identical jobs or tasks can be done at different rates - one slowly or and one rapidly. The work is the same in each case (since they are identical jobs) but the power is different. The equation for power shows the importance of time:

Power = Work / time

P = W / t

The unit for standard metric work is the Joule and the standard metric unit for time is the second, so the standard metric unit for power is a Joule / second, defined as a Watt and abbreviated W. Special attention should be taken so as not to confuse the unit Watt, abbreviated W, with the quantity work, also abbreviated by the letter W.

Combining the equations for power and work can lead to a second equation for power. Power is W/t and work is F•d•cos(theta). Substituting the expression for work into the power equation yields P = F•d•cos(theta)/t. If this equation is re-written as

P = F • cos(theta) • (d/t)

one notices a simplification which could be made. The d/t ratio is the speed value for a constant speed motion or the average speed for an accelerated motion. Thus, the equation can be re-written as

P = F • v • cos(theta)

where v is the constant speed or the average speed value. A few of the problems in this set of problems will utilize this derived equation for power.

Mechanical, Kinetic and Potential Energies

There are two forms of mechanical energy - potential energy and kinetic energy.

Potential energy is the stored energy of position. In this set of problems, we will be most concerned with the stored energy due to the vertical position of an object within Earth's gravitational field. Such energy is known as the gravitational potential energy (PEgrav) and is calculated using the equation

PEgrav = m•g•h

where m is the mass of the object (with standard units of kilograms), g is the acceleration of gravity (9.8 m/s/s) and his the height of the object (with standard units of meters) above some arbitraily defined zero level (such as the ground or the top of a lab table in a physics room).

Kinetic energy is defined as the energy possessed by an object due to its motion. An object must be moving to possess kinetic energy. The amount of kinetic energy (KE) possessed by a moving object is dependent upon mass and speed. The equation for kinetic energy is

KE = 0.5 • m • v2

where m is the mass of the object (with standard units of kilograms) and v is the speed of the object (with standard units of m/s).

The total mechanical energy possessed by an object is the sum of its kinetic and potential energies.

Work-Energy Connection

There is a relationship between work and total mechanical energy. The relationship is best expressed by the equation

TMEi + Wnc = TMEf

In words, this equations says that the initial amount of total mechanical energy (TMEi) of a system is altered by the work which is done to it by non-conservative forces (Wnc). The final amount of total mechanical energy (TMEf) possessed by the system is equivalent to the initial amount of energy (TMEi) plus the work done by these non-conservative forces (Wnc).

The mechanical energy possessed by a system is the sum of the kinetic energy and the potential energy. Thus the above equation can be re-arranged to the form of

KEi + PEi + Wnc = KEf + PEf

0.5 • m • vi2 + m • g • hi + F • d • cos(theta) = 0.5 • m • vf2 + m • g • hf

The work done to a system by non-conservative forces (Wnc) can be described as either positive work or negative work. Positive work is done on a system when the force doing the work acts in the direction of the motion of the object. Negative work is done when the force doing the work opposes the motion of the object. When a positive value for work is substituted into the work-energy equation above, the final amount of energy will be greater than the initial amount of energy; the system is said to have gained mechanical energy. When a negative value for work is substituted into the work-energy equation above, the final amount of energy will be less than the initial amount of energy; the system is said to have lost mechanical energy. There are occasions in which the only forces doing work are conservative forces (sometimes referred to as internal forces). Typically, such conservative forces include gravitational forces, elastic or spring forces, electrical forces and magnetic forces. When the only forces doing work are conservative forces, then the Wnc term in the equation above is zero. In such instances, the system is said to have conserved its mechanical energy.

The proper approach to work-energy problem involves carefully reading the problem description and substituting values from it into the work-energy equation listed above. Inferences about certain terms will have to be made based on a conceptual understanding of kinetic and potential energy. For instance, if the object is initially on the ground, then it can be inferred that the PEi is 0 and that term can be canceled from the work-energy equation. In other instances, the height of the object is the same in the initial state as in the final state, so the PEi and the PEf terms are the same. As such, they can be mathematically canceled from each side of the equation. In other instances, the speed is constant during the motion, so the KEi and KEf terms are the same and can thus be mathematically canceled from each side of the equation. Finally, there are instances in which the KE and or the PE terms are not stated; rather, the mass (m), speed (v), and height (h) is given. In such instances, the KE and PE terms can be determined using their respective equations. Make it your habit from the beginning to simply start with the work and energy equation, to cancel terms which are zero or unchanging, to substitute values of energy and work into the equation and to solve for the stated unknown.

Habits of an Effective Problem-Solver

An effective problem solver by habit approaches a physics problem in a manner that reflects a collection of disciplined habits. While not every effective problem solver employs the same approach, they all have habits which they share in common. These habits are described briefly here. An effective problem-solver...

• ...reads the problem carefully and develops a mental picture of the physical situation. If needed, they sketch a simple diagram of the physical situation to help visualize it.

• ...identifies the known and unknown quantities in an organized manner, often times recording them on the diagram iteself. They equate given values to the symbols used to represent the corresponding quantity (e.g., m = 1.50 kg, vi = 2.68 m/s, F = 4.98 N, t = 0.133 s, vf = ???).

• ...plots a strategy for solving for the unknown quantity; the strategy will typically center around the use of physics equations be heavily dependent upon an understaning of physics principles.

• ...identifies the appropriate formula(s) to use, often times writing them down. Where needed, they perform the needed conversion of quantities into the proper unit.

• ...performs substitutions and algebraic manipulations in order to solve for the unknown quantity.

PRAY TO GOD

Posted by quintustheresraj on March 13, 2013 at 2:20 AM

comments (0)

ARTICLE

Prayer for Salvation

http://christtotheworld.blogspot.com/2009/12/message-of-salvation.html

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

READ - AMAZING TESTIMONIES OF PRAYER MEETINGS

SENT BY THE LORD

• Br Terry Fernando - Lay Missionary

• Br J Keane C.F.C

• Fr Augustine Valooran V.C

• Fr Jose Maniangat

• Fr Mathew Naikomparambil V.C

• Fr James Manjackal M.S.F.S

ST PADRE PIO & SOUL FROM PURGATORY

ETERNITY IN HEAVEN OR HELL?

• How Satan will be conquered?

• Holy Bible on Hell

• St John Bosco's vision on Hell

• St Faustina's vision on Hell

• Fr Jose Near Death Experience

• Sr Lucy - Fatima - Vision of Hell

• Vassula Ryden - Vision of Hell

• Medjugorje - Vision of Hell

• Blessed Anne - Vision of Hell

• Sr Josefa Menendez - Vision of Hell

• St Teresa of Avila - Vision of Hell

• St Teresa of Avila - Vision of Demons

• St John Vianney vs the devil

• St Padre Pio vs the devil

• St Joseph Cupertino vs the devil

• Vision of Hell - Venerable Bede

• St Gemma Galgani vs the devil

• St Louis De Montford on the devil's deception

ST JOHN VIANNEY VS THE DEVIL

SPIRITUAL EXERCISES

• 3 mins with St Ignatius of Loyola

• Examination of Conscience

TRANSFORMING POWER OF SACRAMENTS

• Sacrament of Anointing

MISSION TO EMPTY PURGATORY

• How to Save a soul in Purgatory

PREDITION

Posted by quintustheresraj on March 13, 2013 at 2:15 AM

comments (0)

Top 5 To Try

• How to Spot The Warning Signs of a Tsunami

• How to Recognize Signs of An Approaching Tsunami

• Warning Signs After a C-Section

• Tsunami Science Projects

• Natural Warning Signs for a Tsunami

Ads by Google

• Sign up (Urgent)

1000s of sign up in Companies. Submit your Resume Free. Now!

MonsterIndia.com

• आपातकालीन खाद

कोषेर और हलाल एक वितरक बनें

sites.google.com/site/survindindia/

• Emergency Housing

Emergency House Kit for 4-10 people Japanese Quake & Tsunami Relief

dunsterhouse.co.uk

• Your Zodiac Horoscope

Insert Your Birthdate & Get Answers about Past-Present and Future. Free

AboutAstro.com/horoscope

• Nebosh,Iosh,Osha,Oil&Gas

Nebosh IGC,Oil & Gas in Chennai, Mumbai,Bangalore & Cochin-All India

www.nistinstitute.com/18001032442

What Are the Warning Signs of a Tsunami?

By Eija Rissanen, eHow Contributor

•

• Print this article

TSUNAMI

Posted by quintustheresraj on March 13, 2013 at 2:15 AM

comments (0)

How a Tsunami early warning system works

Posted by kendepauw on March 11, 2011 • Leave a Comment

Tsunamis are probably one of the most powerful and destructive forces of nature. Being by-products of underwater earthquakes, these gigantic waves can decimate an entire coastline, causing untold devastation – not only to buildings and houses but to human life also.

They are caused when a powerful earthquake occurs underwater. The seabed moves causing a large shift in the water. In an attempt to fill the gap in the seabed, the water flows in or is pushed out and a shallow but extremely deep wave is created which radiates outwards from the epicenter. Much like dropping a pebble into water, waves travel outwards from where the pebble hit and dispersed the water.

This wave then grows and as the seabed rises approaching coastlines the tsunami wave grows in height and slows down in speed creating a wall of water which hits the coastlines with tremendous force and can flow far inland.

Due to the sheer power that tsunamis possess there is currently no way of preventing or limiting it’s damage potential. This is not a natural force that can be weathered and waited out like hurricane until it moves on. The only way is to leave the danger areas as quickly as possible. For that to happen you need a tsunami early warning system!

Luckily thanks to technology this exists, enabling warnings to be sent and give more time to allow people to get out of the path of the tsunami.

Without these systems and other technologies such as earthquake and hurricane resistant buildings have helped to limit this loss -especially with recent natural disasters such as in the earthquake in Haiti 2010, and today’s earthquake and tsunami that is devastating Japan and threatens other countries such as Russia, Philipines, Australia, and even as far as west coast USA and Hawaii.

Hi-tech buoys are used to get the warnings out. Pressure sensors are placed on the seabed in tsunami likely regions. These send signals to buoys that can themselves detect when they are suddenly pushed upwards by a large wave or sucked down by the shifting of the sea-bed. It sends this information via satellite to early-warning stations that analyze the data. Here they can calculate a short time after the earthquake occurred, the path and strength of the oncoming tsunami, warning the areas in danger.

FIG PUBLICATION NO. 38

The Contribution of the Surveying Profession to Disaster Risk Management

A publication of FIG Working Group 8.4

________________________________________

This publication in B5 format as .pdf-document (700 KB)

________________________________________

Table of Contents

Foreword

Acknowledgements

Executive Summary

1. Introduction and Background

1.1 Defining Natural and Human-Made Disasters

1.2 Recent Global Trends of Disasters

2. Disaster Risk Management and its Components

3. The Need of the Surveying Profession in Dealing with Disasters

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Geodetic Engineering and Satellite-Based Positioning

3.3 Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

3.4 GIS and Geoinformatics

3.5 Land Management and Land Use Planning

3.6 Conclusions and Future Priorities

4. Institutional and Organizational Challenges of Disaster Risk Management

4.1 Good Governance and Disaster Risk Management

4.2 Capacity Building to Reduce Disaster Risk

Bibliography

Orders of the printed copies

________________________________________

Foreword

In the past decades, the damage due to natural and man-made disasters increased worldwide in amount and magnitude. According to the Munich Re Group, the year 2005 with overall losses exceeding US$ 210 billion set a new record and more than one hundred thousand people were killed as a result of natural catastrophes. Thereof, Hurricane Katrina including the New Orleans flood in the United States was the most expensive natural catastrophe loss in history. Rapid population growth, global climate changes and the over-exploitation of natural resources are mainly responsible for this.

To break and, if possible, reverse this negative trend, International Federation of Surveyors (FIG) implemented a working group to highlight the current and future need for research and action in the field of disaster risk management in the year 2003.

After three years of research in the form of expert meetings as well as papers and posters presented at five FIG Conferences, the present publication aims at presenting application-oriented concepts, methods and instruments for an effective disaster risk management. The report shows clearly that disaster risk reduction could (and should!) be an essential field of application for a surveyor/geomatics engineer/geodesist/land manager. The wide scope of surveyor’s abilities including land management, geodetic engineering, geo-informatics, satellite technology, and remote sensing can make an important contribution to improve, simplify and to shorten the disaster management process. In addition to these engineering skills and knowledge, good governance and capacity development are central components regarding the process and implementation of disaster risk management and sustainable development.

In view of these fields of activity, FIG intends to contribute to a more sustainable and effective disaster risk management and in the long run to the success of mitigating natural and man-made disasters.

I wish to thank the members of the FIG Working Group 8.4, the sister organizations of FIG and other organizations who have contributed to this publication for their constructive and helpful work. My special thanks go to Svein Tveitdal, Director of UNEP/DEC/DEPI, for supporting the FIG work and for acting jointly with FIG to make sustainable development for future generations a reality.

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Holger Magel

President of FIG

September 2006

________________________________________

Acknowledgements

This report has been prepared by the FIG Working Group 8.4 ‚Disaster Risk Management’, which was created in December 2003 during the 2nd FIG Regional Conference in Marrakech, Morocco, within commission 8 - Spatial Planning and Development. The objective of the group, chaired by Prof. Dr.-Ing. Theo Kötter (University of Bonn/Germany), was to analyze systematically the contribution of the surveying profession to disaster risk management, including case studies and best practices. The members of the group are:

Volker Schwieger, University of Stuttgart, Germany

[primary author responsible for section 3.2]

Orhan Altan, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey

[primary author responsible for section 3.3]

Hartmut Müller, FH Mainz, University of Applied Sciences, Germany

[primary author responsible for section 3.4]

Frank Friesecke and Theo Kötter, University of Bonn, Germany

[primary authors responsible for section 3.5]

The report summarizes the fundamental results after a three year period of work. For further information about the working group see www.isbk.uni-bonn.de/fig.

This document is based on the papers presented at the FIG conferences over the last three years (Marrakech, Athens, Jakarta, Cairo and Accra). Furthermore, the keynote presentations at these conferences given by Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Holger Magel, President of FIG, have been of great benefit to this document. Relevant publications of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UN/ISDR), the United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT), the International Association of Geodesy (IAG), the International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ISPRS) and other non-governmental organizations working in the field of disaster risk management have provided essential information in the preparation of this document. Last but not least, we would like to thank the Munich Re Group and the United Nations University, Institute for Environment and Human Security (UNU-EHS) for their support and the provision of photos.

The launching of this publication took place at the XXIII International FIG Congress in Munich, Germany, October 8-13, 2006 (conference web page: www.fig2006.de and proceedings web page: www.fig.net/pub/fig2006).

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Theo Kötter

Chair of the Working Group 8.4

September 2006

________________________________________

Executive Summary

While many people are aware of the terrible impact of disasters throughout the world, few realize that this is a problem that we can do something about.

Kofi A. Annan (UN Secretary-General), 2004

The images and reports of the latest natural disasters, most notably the Indian Ocean Tsunami disaster and Hurricane Katrina, are still very much remembered. In the past decades, the amount and magnitude of natural and human-made disasters is on the rise worldwide and with the increasing frequency, especially poor people in developing countries are affected by these catastrophes.

To understand the causes and impacts of these disasters, chapter 1 explains the most important terms and definitions and gives a short overview of global trends of the increasing occurrence of natural and human-made disasters.

Chapter 2 describes the systematic process of disaster risk management, and explores the main fields of action of this procedure. The particular focus lies on preventive measures to reduce the risk to the affected population.

In the main part (chapter 3) the declaration provides a summary of the wide range of geodetic techniques and tools for disaster mitigation, rehabilitation and reconstruction. Especially methods and instruments of geodetic engineering, satellite geodesy, remote sensing, photogrammetry and land management can make an important contribution to improve, simplify and to shorten the disaster risk management procedure during the pre- and post-disaster phase. Section 3.6 summarizes the results, followed by recommendations as a basis for a more sustainable and effective disaster risk management process.

Chapter 4 outlines the institutional and organizational challenges in the context of disaster risk management and demonstrates the importance of good governance and capacity building in institutional and policy frameworks.

This publication presents concepts, instruments and methods for an effective disaster risk management and shows clearly that disaster risk reduction could be an essential field of application for a surveyor/geodesist/geomatics engineer/land manager.

________________________________________

1. Introduction and Background

Natural disasters are a threat to sustainable development.

The people most affected by natural disasters are the poor.

Klaus Toepfer, UNEP’s Executive Director,

at the Second International Early Warning Conference, Bonn, October 16-18, 2003

1.1 Defining Natural and Human-Made Disasters

Any effective strategy to manage disaster risk must begin with an identification of the hazards and what is vulnerable to them. But what does this mean? What is the correlation between risk, hazards and vulnerability?

The risk of disaster is expressed by a compound function of natural hazard and the number of people, characterized by their varying degrees of vulnerability to the specific hazard, who occupy the space and time of exposure to the hazard event (see Wisner et al 2004, p. 49 and table 1).

Table 1: Correlation between risk, hazard and vulnerability

Source of Definitions: UN/ISDR 2004

Hazards can include latent conditions that may represent future threats and can have different origins: natural (geological, hydrological, meteorological and biological) or induced by human processes (environmental degradation and technological hazards). The most important hazards are:

Natural hazards:

Earthquake, volcanic eruption, mass movement (landslide, debris flow, avalanche), windstorm (including tropical cyclone, tornado, blizzard etc.), flood, tsunami, drought, forest fire.

Technological hazards:

Industrial pollution, nuclear activities and radioactivity, toxic wastes, dam failures; transport, industrial or technological accidents (explosions, fires, spills).

Hazards can be single, sequential or combined in their origin and effects. Each hazard is characterized by its location, intensity, frequency and probability (UN/ISDR 2004, p. 16) and might lead to a disaster.

A disaster is defined as a serious disruption of the functioning of society, causing widespread human, material or environmental losses, which exceed the ability of an affected society to cope using only its own resources (EEA 2006). The extent of the disaster depends on both the intensity of the hazard event and the degree of vulnerability of the society. For example a powerful earthquake in an unpopulated area is not a disaster, while a weak earthquake which hits an urban area with buildings not constructed to withstand earthquakes, can cause great misery (GTZ 2001, p. 14).

Due to this fact, hazard events are only classed as catastrophes when human beings or their property are affected. The term natural catastrophe is used when a natural event is so intense that people suffer and material assets are affected to a substantial degree and on a more or less large scale. A “great” natural catastrophe is defined by the United Nations as a natural catastrophe that distinctly exceeds the ability of an affected region to help itself and makes supra-regional or international assistance necessary (cited in Munich Re Group 2005, p. 12). Generally this is the case when there are thousands of fatalities, when hundreds of thousands of people are made homeless, or when economic losses – depending on the economic circumstances of the country concerned – and/or insured losses reach exceptional extents.

The causes of such a catastrophe are manifold. The most important influential factors of increasing disasters are the following:

Population growth and gross socioeconomic inequities between rich and poor countries, which lead to an over-exploitation of natural resources.

Global climate change, which in long term result in earth warming and an increasing ocean level.

According to the World Urbanization Prospects 2005, a current database from the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, the total population will increase from 6.4 billion in 2005 to 8.2 billion in 2030. Most of the expected population growth will be concentrated in the urban agglomerations of the less developed countries. By 2007, for the first time in human history, more than half the people in the world will be living in cities.

The development with regard to observed increase in global warming is not less fast and dramatic. According to the Third Assessment Report (TAR) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the global average surface temperature has increased by about 0.6°C over the 20th century. The report analyzes that the average surface temperature is projected to increase by 1.4 to 5.8°C over the period 1990 to 2100, and the sea level is projected to rise by 0.1 to 0.9 metres over the same period (IPCC 2001).

A large interdependency can be determined between these two described causes. It is difficult to say whether the increase in disasters is related to climate change, or the fact that population growth increase the number of people affected by disasters.

Figure 1: Disaster risk as the product of hazard and vulnerability

The effects of the described changes are different:

The increase of population and consumption has reached unsustainable levels and leads to a loss of biodiversity and rising imbalance between protection and use of natural resources.

This overall intensification of natural resource utilization increases the environmental degradation and decay of the key ecosystems (land degradation, erosion, deforestation, air, water, and soil pollution).

The urban growth leads to an increase in vulnerability of major metropolitan areas to disasters.

Primarily the uncontrolled and uncoordinated urban growth causes a lot of different ecological, economic and social problems and risks. Considering the high density and the large number of inhabitants combined with the accelerated urban development, especially so-called megacities and urban agglomerations run highest risk in cases of natural and human-caused disasters (cf. Kötter/Friesecke 2005). It is expected that the vulnerability of the society and the human environment as well as the threat by disasters will intensify continuously in the future.

1.2 Recent Global Trends of Disasters

The number of natural and human-made disasters is on the rise worldwide. With regard to major disasters in the recent past, two events bear in remembrance:

Earthquake and Tsunami in South East Asia (December 2004)

On December 26, 2004, South Asia was hit by one of the most devastating natural catastrophes of recent decades. The largest earthquake since 1964 caused devastating tsunami waves that killed nearly 230.000 people in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, South India, Thailand and the Maldives, making it one of the most deadly catastrophes in modern history.

Photo 1: The aftermath of the tsunami in South East Asia, Khao Loak South (Source: Munich Re Group)

Hurricane Katrina in North America (August 2005)

Hurricane Katrina was a tropical cyclone that hit the southern States of America in August 2005 and was the most destructive and costliest natural disaster in the history of the United States. After landfall on August 29, several sections of the levee system of New Orleans collapsed so that up to 80% of the city was underwater. Experts estimate a total economic damage of over $ 75 billion.

Photo 2: The aftermath of Hurricane Katrina 2005 (Source: Munich Re Group)

Besides smaller-scale disasters, especially these two catastrophic events provide dramatic evidence of what nature’s power is capable of. In the past decades, the damage due to natural and “un-natural” (or human-made) disasters increased worldwide in amount and magnitude. Figure 1 shows the economic losses and insured losses of major disasters during the second half of the twentieth century up to now. According to investigations of the reinsurance agency Munich Re the economic losses exceeded over 145 billion US $ in the year 2004, whereby the trend took a progressive process in the last years (Munich Re Group 2005). In 2005, there was an 18 per cent rise in disasters that killed 91,900 people according to official figures issued by the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) and the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UN/ISDR) in Geneva (UN Press Release January 30, 2006).

Until the year 2050 the number of fatalities by natural catastrophes will increase up to an average of 100.000 persons per year; at the same time an increase of the annual economic losses up to 300 billion US $ is expected (Munich Re 2003). Alone the number of people worldwide vulnerable to a devastating flood is expected to grow to 2 billion by 2050 due to climate change, deforestation, rising sea levels and population growth in flood-prone lands, warn experts at the United Nations University (UNU-EHS News Release June 13, 2004).

It is obvious that the major part of the damage will take place in developing countries with a dramatic impact on poor people and ethnic minorities. Countries with low human development account for 53 percent of recorded deaths from disasters even though they are home to only 11 percent of the people exposed to natural hazards worldwide (UNDP 2004, p.10).

Figure 2: Economic and insured losses with trends (Source: Munich Re Group 2006)

The serious impacts on the global environment show that there is an urgent need for more and better urban development strategies for disaster risk assessment and risk reduction.

________________________________________

2. Disaster Risk Management and its Components

Instead of starting with the focus on natural hazards and their quantification, the assessment and ranking of the vulnerability of affected groups should serve as the starting point in defining priorities and remedial interventions.

Dr. Janos Bogardi, Director of UNU-EHS, 2004

Due to the increasing frequency of disasters worldwide, a lot of international organizations, governments and NGOs like FIG are upgrading the priority of disaster risk management for policy, and are developing techniques and tools for disaster mitigation, rehabilitation and reconstruction.

According to ISDR Secretariat disaster risk management means the systematic process of using administrative decisions, organization, operational skills and capacities to implement policies, strategies and coping capacities of the society and communities to lessen the impacts of natural hazards and related environmental and technological disasters. This comprises all forms of activities, including structural and non-structural measures to avoid (prevention) or to limit (mitigation and preparedness) adverse effects of hazards (cf. UN/ISDR 2004 and www.unisdr.org).

Generally, the disaster risk management process (cycle) is composed of the following main elements (cf. UN/ISDR 2004 and figure 3):

Risk identification and assessment (determining and analyzing the potential, origin, characteristics and behaviour of the hazard – e.g. frequency of occurrence/magnitude of consequences)

Knowledge management (information programs and systems, public awareness policy, education and training, research in disaster reduction)

Political commitment and institutional development (good governance to elevate disaster risk reduction as a policy priority, integration in development planning and sectoral policies, implementing organizational structures, legal and regulatory framework)

Application of risk reduction measures (planning and implementation of structural interventions (e.g. dams, dikes) or non-structural measures like disaster legislation)

Early warning (provision of timely and effective information, through identified institutions, that allow individuals exposed to a hazard, to take action to avoid or reduce their risk and prepare for effective response)

Disaster preparedness and emergency management (activities and measures taken in advance to ensure effective response to the impact of a hazard, including measures related to timely and effective warnings as well as evacuation and emergency planning)

Recovery/Reconstruction (decisions and actions taken in the post-disaster phase with a view to restoring the living conditions of the affected population)

Based on the above specified components, disaster risk management includes measures before (risk analysis, prevention, preparedness), during (emergency aid) and after a disaster (reconstruction). Sometimes disaster risk management includes only a part of disaster management, focusing on the before of the extreme natural event (cf. GTZ 2004, p. 18).

However, each risk reduction measure has to be evaluated regarding its technical functionality, economic costs and efficiency as well as social and ecological effects (ESPON 2005).

Figure 3: Key elements of disaster risk management

In the context of disaster risk management, various activities and initiatives at national and international level show the increasing relevance of disaster reduction, e.g. the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) as well as the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED). The joint aim of all activities is to reduce the risk of social, economic and environmental impacts of natural hazards on vulnerable populations, within the broad context of sustainable development.

In addition, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro (1992), the Millennium Development Goals (2000), the World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg (2002) and the World Conference on Disaster Reduction, Kobe (2005) have promoted improved linkages between sustainable development and disaster risk reduction. Besides the implementation of case studies, priority was given to create comprehensive guidelines that could be used by governments, international (partly non-governmental) organizations and society to help avert losses from natural and technological disasters.

However, as the latest disasters have clearly illustrated, more than ever a holistic approach to disaster risk management is needed in order to enhance resilience and reducing vulnerability to disasters. Scientists and engineers can contribute to this major challenge for disaster reduction by continuing and intensifying research on the natural processes and creating new tools and models for all phases of a disaster. This includes for example the development of hazard mitigation strategies (e.g. sustainable land management) and data collection systems that provide real-time and high quality data for use in models for risk analysis, forecasting and early warning. The possible contribution of the surveying profession will be described in the following chapter.

________________________________________

3. The Need of the Surveying Profession in Dealing with Disasters

For thousands of years they measure, divide the earth, draw maps

– surveyors and cartographers.

Prof. Z. Adamczewski, Warsaw

3.1 Introduction

The modern surveyor can play an important role in the field of disaster risk management, although in most cases, the activities will take place as part of multi-disciplinary task forces.

About 80 % of daily decisions on national or local level, either in economy, finances / taxation, demography, spatial planning, environment, hazard areas, infrastructure, housing, cultural heritage, etc. are spatially or geo-referenced. That demonstrates clearly, surveying is a central pillar of each country and its economy (Magel 2005). Roberge has a more sceptical view of the situations in which surveyors get involved concerning disaster risk management: “Our contribution is neither spectacular nor glamorous. We are not under the spotlight like rescue teams, policemen, doctors, etc. Nevertheless, our role is no less important but merely, too often, unknown or misunderstood” (Roberge 2005).

Figure 4: The change of geodetic activities from traditional tasks to new methods (modified, according to Schulte 2005)

As visualized in figure 4, there is an irreversible process of professional change in surveying methods and applications in the past decades. Whereas the surveyor in former times (only) had profound knowledge in areas of work such as Earth sciences, measurement techniques and land management, the modern surveyor needs also skills in (geo-)informatics and management. Requirements are not only engineering know-how but also knowledge in business administration (planning, organizing, leading, co-ordinating and controlling) as well as the development and management of databases of geo-data. The modern surveying engineer assists in acquiring, managing, visualizing and analyzing geospatial data related to disasters. Combined with new technologies and methods, the challenging profession delivers the basic principles for disaster risk management within the disciplines geodetic engineering, satellite-based positioning, photogrammetry, remote sensing, geoinformatics and land management (fig. 5).

Figure 5: The need of surveying methods and applications for disaster risk management

However, the five geodetic disciplines listed in figure 5 have to be seen in close interrelationship. The key for success lies in the collaboration and networking between the different disciplines and techniques, e.g. because of the fact that geographic information systems use airborne and satellite data as well as radar and (multi-spectral) images. Of course, as already mentioned, not only the surveyor can contribute to the prevention and mitigation of disasters. The multi-sectoral and interdisciplinary approach to disaster reduction requires interaction, co-operation and partnerships among all related stakeholders and institutions (i.e. local authorities, civil society and private sector).

The following chapters want to enumerate the geodetic contribution in the field of disaster risk management. They will show us that, due to the versatility of our profession, the tasks of a surveyor can be seen primarily in four groups of objects:

I. Acquisition of disaster-relevant data by using different data sources such as airborne and satellite data; radar and (multi-spectral) images

II. Hazard assessment and design of monitoring and/or early warning systems as part of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and other computer-based information systems

III. Development and implementation of preventive measures of land use planning and land management to reduce disaster damage

IV. Cadastral reconstruction using Global Positioning Systems (GPS/GLONASS) and/or Tacheometry in the post-disaster phase

Especially tools to monitor the risk evolution process are very important. Disaster reduction measures should be based on continuous assessment of vulnerability and hazards, including a vulnerability/hazard analysis and monitoring. Photogrammetry, for instance, is an efficient tool in the monitoring of spatial objects like volcanoes or mass movements with respect to location form and size (Altan 2005, p. 311). The surveyor as an expert in geoinformatics can support the first steps of the disaster risk management cycle, establishing geographic information systems for risk analysis, monitoring and early warning systems. Besides that, virtual 3D city models can provide important information in case of severe destruction of infrastructure to facilitate localization in indoor and outdoor navigation (Kolbe, Gröger, Plümer 2005).

Furthermore, land use and urban planning can help to mitigate disasters and reduce risks by avoiding construction of settlements and key facilities in hazard prone areas, control of population density and expansion.

In the post-disaster phase surveyors’ contribution of cadastral reconstruction to the redevelopment of the affected areas is needed. Haroen/Achmad/Rusmawar explain the new cadastral approaches after the tsunami and earthquake in Aceh (Haroen et al 2005). A surveyor as an urban planner can contribute to the rehabilitation of housing, infrastructure and public facilities and to reduce the future vulnerabilities of human settlements.

3.2 Geodetic Engineering and Satellite-Based Positioning

Monitoring and Early Warning using Geodetic Measurement Techniques and Satellite Based Positioning

The main focus of disaster risk management is often dedicated to monitoring of objects, areas, regions or even the whole earth with the aim to give warning to the people that may be affected by a disaster at right time. In general we talk about early warning systems. Early-warning-systems are essential for almost all natural and human-made disasters as mentioned in chapter 1.1. Exemplary catastrophes that are monitored and forecasted by geodetic means are mentioned in the following: earthquake, volcanic eruption, landslide, tsunami, dam or bridge failures.

Obviously to build up early warning system one requires highly interdisciplinary teams: different scientists and engineers have to work together. If one is talking e.g. about tsunamis one needs geologists, geophysicists, hydrologists; to avoid bridge failures the knowledge of civil engineers is non refusable. But in parallel to all monitoring tasks is the need for geometric quantities in the sense e.g. of positions of objects in absolute sense or in relation to other objects or in distances between points on one object. To measure positions and other geometry related quantities a surveyor is needed to design, develop and implement the respective measurement systems as well as to evaluate and analyse the measured quantities. Therefore the knowledge of a geodetic engineer is non substitutable in any of the named early warning applications.

The Contribution of the Surveying Profession

As written before the main role of the surveyor is the one as a geodetic engineer that cooperates in an interdisciplinary team. One’s duty is to deliver the geometric quantities required and – even more important – to describe the quality of the data in a way the other partners of the team may understand it and use it for their interpretation and their catastrophe forecasting models. Some of the most important tasks carried through by the surveyor as a geodetic engineer are

design, development and implementation of measurement systems on the basis of the dynamic object model using e.g. methods of sensitivity analysis,

process, evaluate and adjust the geodetic measurements, including models and analysis of time-dependent measurements as well as deformation analysis,

develop and implement algorithms for data fusion, partly in cooperation with other disciplines that deliver measurement data too (e.g. geotechnical measurements),

model, describe, measure and propagate the quality of geodetic data,

manage and visualise measurements and results as well as

coming to decision within the disaster risk management process in an interdisciplinary team.

The measurement instruments used for early warning systems depend on the required quality especially the accuracy demands as well as to the extension and the environment of the monitored object, area or region. So for tasks as early warning with respect to tsunamis or volcanic eruptions large areas or regions are monitored. Here satellite based positioning methods are applied. For small extensions as valid for constructions like bridges or dams and for e.g. landslides higher accuracy is required, so that tacheometers as well as other specialised instruments like digital levels, tiltmeters or inclinometers are in use. For an overview we refer to Foppe et al. (2004).

Figure 6: Measurement instruments in relation to accuracy and object expansion (Source: Foppe et al. 2004)

Good-Practice-Examples

Monitoring of slopes with respect to landslides

One typical example regarding early warning is the monitoring of slopes with respect to possible landslides. Regarding the behaviour of the slope one has to consider the landslide classification by the UNESCO Working Group for World Landslide Inventory (fig. 7) for the modelling as well as further information regarding the geological and tectonic background of the slope.

Figure 7: Classification of landslides according to UNESCO Working Group for World Landslide Inventory

(Source: Foppe & Schwieger, 2000)

For this we need interdisciplinary teams consisting of geodesists and geologists. One of the first projects dealing with interdisciplinary research work was the “Geotechnical Information System” in cooperation of geologists from the Geological Institute Mainz and geodesist from the Geodetic Institute Hannover (Foppe & Matthesius, 1994). The objective of the project was fast and precise monitoring of the actual state of the monitored slope. Different slopes in south Germany were investigated within this project. The geodetic as well as the geotechnical measurements were integrated in one information system that allows the analysis and interpretation of the results. The geodetic engineers were responsible for building up a Geotechnical Information System including data acquisition, management and deformation analysis.

This interdisciplinary cooperation example has taken its continuation in several scientific projects as well as practical implementations leading to an integration of the geodetic engineer into landslide monitoring projects due to his knowledge about data acquisition, data processing and modelling of the likely sliding slope. As an example the new project InterRisk (Integrative Landslide Risk Analysis and Perception in the Swabian Alb) as cooperation between geologists, geographers and geodesists may be given. Here among other things the derivation of correlations between external factors like rain fall and geometric quantities, the measured deformations, are under research (e.g. InterRisk 2006, Schauerte et al. 2006).

Tsunami Warning System

On a larger scale tsunami warning systems are currently of high interest. For example the GeoForschungsZentrum Potsdam (GFZ) will co-develop a part of the IOTWS (Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System) near Indonesia. This development is a German-Indonesian cooperation called GITEWS (German Indonesian Tsunami Early Warning System) granted by the German government (BMBF 2004).

Figure 8: Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System (Source: GFZ 2006)

The system will integrate terrestrial observation techniques like seismometers and tide gauge measurements by GPS as well as marine measurements on GPS buoys and with ocean bottom pressure sensors and the processing centre in Indonesia (compare fig. 8). The base is the already available global earthquake monitoring system of GFZ and its also available real-time communication technique. Overall the system consists of four chain links: the data acquisition, the data processing, the validation and the warning component. The final implemented system will have an open and modular character to ensure the possibility to be further enlarged without problems.

The development and implementation of the system is accompanied by capacity building in the sense of training of local scientists, engineers and decision makers in Indonesia regarding measurement techniques, tsunami modelling and information processing. In this way the technical objectives of the GITEWS are supplemented by additional efforts aiming to develop human skills to reduce the level of risk in Indonesia.

The GITEWS team is highly interdisciplinary consisting of geophysicists, hydrologists, computer scientists and of course geodetic engineers. The positive fact is that the scientists and engineers of this project have already done research in the same organisation like GFZ before project start. This illustrates the importance of interdisciplinary research centres for activities regarding disaster risk management and especially early warning systems.

The Way Forward

Still surveyors are seen as supplier of measured geometric data. This has to be changed dramatically. The geodetic engineer has to be an equal partner within the discussions. Even more the surveyor may play in important part in the decision process, since in general he delivers the respective geometric information that is essential for releasing an alarm in any early warning system. In other words the geodetic measurements drive the emergency planning tasks thus steering the whole process of disaster risk management in case of an impending event. This leads to the conclusion that the surveyor should be one of the key decision makers in any monitoring and early warning team.

Additionally the knowledge of surveyors regarding modelling of dynamic systems like construction or slopes should lead to an equal role for the evaluation and optimization of these dynamic models describing the behaviour of the monitored objects. In general the specialists that collaborate with the surveyors see any involvement into “their” objects and processes as a danger for their profession. This means that a civil engineer does not like discuss their dynamic construction models with geodesists and that geologists do the same with landslide models. We have to explain to our colleagues that a win-win situation is generated in case of shared knowledge. The interdisciplinary cooperation would be even more purposeful. Finally the assessment of risks would be possible with the help of geodesists in case of a real interdisciplinary cooperation.

3.3 Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

Photogrammetry is an efficient tool in monitoring spatial objects due to location, form and shape. Its main advantage to other measuring techniques lies in the fact that the measurement is done on the images and indirect measuring possibility opens the users of this method a wide range of application possibilities. One of the contributions is the use of terrestrial photogrammetric methods to determine the monitoring, documenting and analyzing the damages in the structures after an earthquake. Today with the help of digital data capturing, on-line processing techniques and automation of data evaluation by means of image analysis and matching techniques is enabled. In this context 3D-object reconstruction techniques, classification or image detection and their integration into a deformation analysis procedure using information system technology is used. So after a short time and nearly on-line the deformations of the building can be determined and obtained, the displacements values are controlled with the values given in the “Structural Codes”. With this very fast data acquisition technique the civil engineers gain an efficient tool to determine whether a damaged building will be kept for retrofitting or be demolished.

Aerial photogrammetric data acquisition techniques give very accurate data about the damaged area and are a very good tool for coordinating rescue operations after a disaster. The data gaining method named as LIDAR (= LIght Detection And Ranging) is a weather and day light independent method which provides data very fast and enables to detect the damaged parts of a city or residential areas automatically.

Earth observation satellites have demonstrated their utility in providing data for a wide range of applications in disaster risk management. Pre-disaster uses include risk analysis and mapping; disaster warning, such as cyclone tracking, drought monitoring, the extent of damage due to volcanic eruptions, oil spills, forest fires and the spread of desertification; and disaster assessment, including flood monitoring and assessment, estimation of crop and forestry damages, and monitoring of land use/change in the aftermath of disasters. Remotely sensed data also provide a historical database from which hazard maps can be compiled, indicating which areas are potentially vulnerable. Information from satellites is often combined with other relevant data in geographic information systems (GIS) in order to carry out risk analysis and assessment. GIS can be used to model various hazard and risk scenarios for the future planning and the development of an area.

Photo 3: High Resolution QuickBird image of the devastated area - Tsunami in Southeast Asia, December 26, 2004 (Source: Prof. Altan)

A proposed concept of a geo-space system for prediction and monitoring earthquakes and other natural and man-made catastrophes, which is based on a system capable of monitoring precursors of earthquakes in the ionosphere and magnetosphere of the Earth and using these precursors to make short-term forecast of earthquakes. Investigations on the interaction between ionosphere’s F layer variations and different variations occurring in circumterrestrial environment (atmosphere, ionosphere and magnetosphere) associated with seismic activity, and detected by means of ground base and satellite monitoring. This method and others like GPS measurements for long distances are providing useful parameters for earthquake forecasting.

Realizing the fact that the remotely sensed data can help very much for the disaster risk management, at its forty-fourth session, the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space agreed to establish action teams composed of interested Member States in order to implement the recommendations of the Third United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNISPACE III). One of the action teams focused on studying and recommending the implementation of an integrated operational global system, especially through international cooperation, to manage natural disaster mitigation, relief and prevention efforts through Earth observation, communications and other space-related services, making maximum use of existing capabilities and filling gaps in worldwide coverage. Several UN Member States expressed their support for the work being carried out by the action team, emphasizing the importance of creating an entity (DIMISCO; Disaster Management International Space Coordination Organization) in that it could promote more effectively the application of space technology in disaster reduction and management at the global level, and in developing countries in particular, and their preference of setting up such an entity under the umbrella of the United Nations in order to guarantee universal access. It is planned that the proposed entity will be operational on 1 January 2007.

3.4 GIS and Geoinformatics

Spatial Data Information is one of the core subjects in disaster prevention and emergency aid. To guarantee, e.g., for speed and efficiency of rescue operations all information should be available at a glance in the control units and in the mobile rescue units as well. In an emergency case, not only the location of the event but many other information is needed, like ‚How many people are affected?‘, ‚Which road network is available?‘, ‚Can the location be reached by vehicles?‘ ‚Where are the most nearby hospitals located?‘ ‚How much and which kind of capacity do the hospitals have?‘ Such and many other questions can be answered very quickly if and only if reliable spatial data are available in digital form and if the data are processed in a powerful Geo Information System (GIS).

Recently, many IT developments took place which can help to speed up the information flow considerably. The availability of Internet access points, the widely common IT infrastructure within the Internet, the standardisation process defining spatial data processing procedures all together provide for the IT base of a spatial data infrastructure to support a powerful spatial information management which can be used as a valuable source of suitable disaster management. The spatial data infrastructure should be consistently implemented across sub-national and national boundaries because disaster areas typically do not coincide with administration boundaries.

Geo Information Systems can help to support all phases of emergency management, like mitigation, preparedness, response and even recovery.

Depending on the specific tasks, different types of GIS are to be used:

Spatial information portals and data warehouses

Modelling and simulation systems

Monitoring and early warning systems

Planning support systems

Special tasks which can be performed in such a GIS system may include:

Use of spatial data and object related data from various sources

Integration of mobile action force information in near real-time

Providing adequately processed intersected data including decision support signals for control centres and field staff

Information retrieval support

Information intersection support

Decision process support

Scenario projection of retrieved intersected information

Database of predefined scenarios

Extension of existing databases and cadastres

Connection of existing disaster management systems via open standard interface

Logging of activities for the purpose of documentation

Contribution of the Surveying Profession

Traditional skills of a surveyor, like quality awareness, are a valuable contribution and can help to support the quality assurance of spatial data and of spatial information processes as well. Spatial data processing needs the data management capabilities of surveyors. In the field of land information systems, surveyors possess a sound experience in maintaining huge spatial databases at a very high level of reliability since a long time. This knowledge can be used to support the implementation of other but, technically spoken, similar spatial information systems which provide for an absolutely indispensable base for the effective disaster risk management.

Good-Practice-Example

The given figures show a prototype of how to request and receive an automatic access route generation via Internet under the conditions of an upcoming emergency case. The syntax of such a request is given in GML notation, the result obtained by the request is shown as a computer screen shot.

Figure 9: Emergency route service, a special routing system adapted to the needs of emergency aid

Figure 10: GML Geography Mark-up Language notation, the IT base of interoperability between different partners in emergencies

3.5 Land Management and Land Use Planning

Land Management and Land Use Planning as a Tool of Risk Prevention

Land is an ultimate natural resource, without it life on earth cannot be sustained. As a result of the dramatic increase in population growth and poverty especially in the developing countries, people increasingly settle and farm in disaster-prone areas, where land is often more fertile in comparison to other locations. The consequences are dramatic: A great number of people are vulnerable to extreme natural events due to a lack of land use planning.

In the context of disaster risk management effective land management and land use planning can help to mitigate disasters and reduce risks by avoiding human settlements in hazard prone areas, control of population density and expansion.

Generally, land management can be defined as the process of managing the use and development of land resources in a sustainable way, or in other words is the process by which the resources of land are put into good effect (UN/ECE 1996, p. 13). It contains all activities associated with the management of land and natural resources that are required to achieve sustainable development (Enemark 2005) and contributes particularly to safeguard property rights and property accessibility. To attain these goals the complex and interdisciplinary concept of land management includes the four areas (according to Enemark 2004, 2005):

Land tenure (securing and transferring rights in land and natural resources),

Land value (valuation and taxation of land and properties),

Land use (planning and control of the use of land and natural resources) and

Land development (implementing utilities, infrastructure and construction planning).

Unfortunately, these instruments have often been used with little regard to the exposure of disaster risk. Non-existent or inadequate land use planning has contributed to increasing the vulnerability of communities exposed to hazards (UN/ISDR 2004, p. 315). Nevertheless, there are many ways in which risk reduction can be integrated into land management and the land use planning process helping to minimize human and economic losses as well as environmental degradation due to disasters. Among others, the following tools and strategies of land use and land development can be mentioned:

Identification of disaster-prone areas as well as alternative sites that are more suitable for development,

Controlling the type of land use and land development in such areas (by land use regulations and building codes),

Retrofitting and building of settlements and homes adapted to disaster conditions,

Relocation of population vulnerable to disasters,

Engineering measures and construction of hazard-resistant and/or protective structures and infrastructure.

In addition to these direct measures of land management to reduce the physical vulnerability of households and infrastructure, indirect measures can be a basis for sustainable development and risk mitigation:

Social benefit through public participation in land use management practices,

Precautionary environmental protection by reduction of soil sealing and by protection of environmentally sensitive areas as well as

Economic viability through decentralized development with a poly-centric settlement structure (cf. Kötter 2003).

The Way Forward

As described above, an integrative and comprehensive approach of methods for disaster reduction on the one hand and the strategies of land use planning and land management on the other hand is missing so far. Improved land use and land management strategies and instruments are needed that combine the land administration/cadastre/land development function with the process of disaster risk management. Therefore, especially security of land tenure, access to land and control of land use in hazard-prone areas are central issues to minimize vulnerability of populations to future crisis and disasters. This includes creation and adoption of a comprehensive policy on land management with regard to disaster prevention and mitigation as well as sustainable development (cf. figure 11).

Figure 11: Sustainable land use management as a tool for risk reduction (modified, according to Enemark 2004, p.

However, the first steps in achieving these goals have been taken. Institutional and public awareness is increasing. The implementation of sustainable land management will help to promote economic and social development in both urban and rural areas and will lead to a better disaster reduction.

Whereas current disaster management strategies tend to favour structural measures (engineering solutions), one can notice a change of paradigm towards non-structural measures such as land use and building regulations or special disaster legislation. Concerning flood prevention, for example, the key objective is to leave more room for rivers, particularly for their natural flood plains, or to give the space back to them. To achieve this goal, measures for moving dikes further away from river banks as well as conservation or restoration of flood plains have to be implemented in the flood protection strategies. This includes certain restrictions on the construction of buildings in areas classified as “at risk of flooding” and agricultural use in high-risk areas (Friesecke 2004).

Contribution of the Surveying Profession

With its specialized skills the professional surveyor can substantially contribute to helping to mitigate disasters and to reduce risk. Requirements are not only engineering know-how but also the surveyors’ variety of skills and knowledge in urban and rural planning, land management and development, building and land law, real estate and business administration, ecology, nature and landscape conservation as well as social competence. Among other things, the surveyor as a land manager:

develops effective land use concepts that are necessary for a sustainable urban and rural development,

coordinates and directs the complex procedures of land consolidation, land registration and land reallocation,

creates sustainable infrastructural, economic and ecological conditions for developing urban and rural areas and solving land use conflicts,

coordinates public-private agreements in order to use land in a economic, ecological and social way and

undertakes damage assessment of the destroyed or harmed buildings and public facilities in the aftermath of a disaster.

However, it’s not the surveyor alone, who contributes to disaster risk management with special regard to land management. Land management and land use planning are interdisciplinary tasks that shift the responsibility for the described strategies and measures on various occupational groups.

Good-Practice-Example

Flood Prevention by Land Consolidation

Land consolidation can be an effective instrument in rural development for preventative risk reduction. On the one hand, it can facilitate the creation of competitive agricultural production arrangements by enabling farmers to have farms with fewer parcels that are larger and better shaped, and to expand the size of their property. But, on the other hand, because of the growing importance of flood protection, land consolidation has become an increasingly important instrument in increasing water storage capacity, redeveloping flood plains and renaturalizing rivers.

In reference to flood risk management, efficient and long-term land consolidation combines water management, regional planning and rural development, agriculture and nature conservation measures in an interdisciplinary concept. Concerning flood prevention, the “new” objectives are

Table 2: Fields of action for preventative flood management by land consolidation

There is a growing realization that the above mentioned flood mitigation measures must be combined in an integrated approach to flood disaster management. A balance between structural and non-structural measures to manage floods is required, where the main focus is shifting from large structural solutions to non-structural approaches such as avoiding building development in flood plains.

Photo 4: Land Consolidation project ‘Hellinghauser Mersch’ at the river Lippe in Germany (Source: Helle, R.)

In relation to the process of land consolidation, the use of surveyor’s technical expertise is substantial. The surveyor as an engineer, land manager, urban and rural planner, evaluator and expert in Geographic Information Systems can be crucial for success in integrated rural and urban development. Besides others, the areas of activities and responsibilities assumed by a professional surveyor are the following:

Photo flight of the land consolidation area including (automated) interpretation of the imagery data

Determination of new property boundaries (renewal of cadastre) with

Tacheometry

GPS Technology

Creation and installation of Geographic Information System(s) – GIS

Reshaping the land consolidation area (in consideration of the requirements of spatial planning and of controlled rural development)

In particular GIS, GPS and the digital data transfer may importantly contribute to simplifying work and to shorten the land consolidation procedure. It is safe to say that the share of Surveyors during this process results in a more cost-effective land consolidation! (cf. for more information Friesecke 2005).

3.6 Conclusions and Future Priorities

To be a good technician it is not enough to be a good technician only.

Spanish Writer José Ortega y Gasset (1883-1955)

Conclusions

The modern surveyor is confronted with the introduction of new and enhanced technology including scanning technology, both terrestrial and airborne, sensor technology, GIS developments, the development of satellite navigation systems (GPS/GLONASS) as well as the implementation of space missions for Earth observation (e.g. CHAMP/GRACE).

With all this knowledge in Geodesy/Surveying/Geoinformation a professional surveyor will be able to act in a wide spectrum of sectors within the disaster risk management process (cf. also figure 12):

Risk analysis and assessment: mathematical-statistical analysis using geospatial data (airborne and satellite data; radar and multi-spectral images); detecting and quantifying land cover and land use change for hazard analysis and monitoring (e.g. by remote sensing); usage of GIS in hazard mapping.

Knowledge development: research in disaster reduction and disaster control, e.g. research of the earth’s shape, sea level changes, gravity field and plate tectonics.

(Precautionary) disaster risk reduction measures: Land management; development of land use concepts; deformation measurements for volcano or mass movement monitoring; engineering surveys and monitoring of structural measures (e.g. dams, dikes).

Early warning: Technologies and techniques for early warning systems, e.g. data acquisition and analysis; software development; cartographic visualization; disaster modelling; usage of geodetic control networks.

Emergency management: use of virtual 3D models of towns, buildings and landscape for an easier location in case of a disaster (evacuation and emergency planning); supply of digital maps for emergency planning, mobile mapping.

Recovery/Reconstruction: documentation of damages (by laser scanning or tacheometry); damage assessment of the destroyed or harmed buildings and public facilities; cadastral reconstruction.

As the above specified fields of activity and the good-practice-examples in the last sections show, the whole scope of surveyor’s abilities can make an important contribution to improve the disaster risk management procedure, including methods and measures before (risk analysis, prevention, preparedness), during (emergency planning) and after a disaster (reconstruction).

Figure 12: (Possible) geodetic contribution to disaster risk management

Source: UN/ISDR 2004, p. 15 (modified and supplemented)

In conclusion, the contribution of the surveying profession in disaster risk reduction results in a more effective and efficient disaster risk reduction!

Future Priorities

Unmistakably, the surveying profession is in a period of unprecedented change. Traditional measurement instruments and tools are and will be supplemented or displaced by automated devices, new satellite navigation systems (e.g. European system GALILEO), digital remote sensing sensors as well as new space missions for Earth observation (e.g. GOCE).

This trend to the formation of new technologies and, closely connected with that, new fields of professional activity will continue in the near future. To be able to manage the new and complex challenges, well-skilled experts are needed against the background of unresolved problems like population growth and increasing disaster risk.

These new developments require an appropriate mixture of broad knowledge and specialized expertise. According to Magel (2003), a surveyor should become a »well grounded specialized generalist« with more business skills and knowledge and the intention of more inter- and intradisciplinary collaboration in the future.

To give an example with regard to disaster risk management, an important contribution of the surveying profession can be made by political commitment and institutional development (good governance to elevate disaster risk reduction as a policy priority, integration in development planning and sectoral policies, implementing organizational structures, legal and regulatory framework).

Therefore, an increased engagement at the political level by heads of the surveying profession is needed, which is still missing so far. The President of FIG (Magel 2005) postulates that surveyors should play a manifold role as:

enablers for local people, CBO (community-based organization) and NGO (non-governmental organization)

mediators between citizens and authorities as well as

advisors to politicians and state institutions.

If we succeed in these priorities there is a great chance that the surveying profession will have an even more prosperous future in the upcoming years.

________________________________________

4. Institutional and Organizational Challenges of Disaster Risk Management

Good Governance is perhaps the single most important factor

in eradicating poverty and promoting development.

Kofi A. Annan, Secretary General of the United Nations

A comprehensive response to natural and human-made disasters is often constrained by institutional fragmentation and organizational deficiencies. In order to create a healthy environment for future generations, especially good governance and ca

MUSIC NOTES

Posted by quintustheresraj on March 13, 2013 at 2:10 AM

comments (0)

Language : Sanskrit

Song : Varaveena Mrudu Paani

Album : Carnatic Primer

Defaults : s r2 g3 p d2 (Raagam: Mohanam)

(unless otherwise specified. See Legend for more details)

ThaaLam : Roopakam (3 beats)

g g p - p - d p S - S -

va ra vee...na.. mrudu paa ni

R S d d p - d p g g r -

va na ru ha lO.. chana ra....ni..

g p d S d - d p g g r -

su ru chira bum. bhara ve.ni.....

g g d p g - p g g r s -

su ra nu dhakal. ya..........ni..

g g g g r g p g p - p -

ni ru pa ma shubha gu na lO....la..

g g d p d - d p S - S -

ni ra thija ya.. prada shee..la..

d G R R S S d S d d d p

va ra da....priya ranga na....ya.ki

g p d S d p d p g g r s

va.an.chita pa la da..........ya.ki

s g g - g - g r p g r -

sa ra se....ja.. sa na ja na ni..

s r s g r s

ja ya ja ya ja ya

Language : Sanskrit

Song : Varaveena Mrudu Paani

Album : Geetham

Raagam : Mohanam (c d e g a C)

(See Legend for more details)

ThaaLam : Roopakam (3 beats)

e e g - g - a g C - C -

va ra vee...na.. mrudu paa...ni..

D C a a g - a g e e d -

va na ru ha lO.. chana ra....ni..

e g a C a - a g e e d -

su ru chira bum. bhara ve.ni.....

e e a g e - g e e d c -

su ra nu dhakal. ya..........ni..

e e e e d e g e g - g -

ni ru pa ma shubha gu na lO....la..

e e a g a - a g C - C -

ni ra thija ya.. prada shee..la..

a E D D C C a C a a a g

va ra da....priya ranga na....ya.ki

e g a C a g a g e e d c

va.an.chita pa la da..........ya.ki

c e e - e - e d g e d -

sa ra se....ja.. sa na ja na ni..

c d c e d c

ja ya ja ya ja ya

Language : Tamil

Song : Why This Kolaveri

Movie : MooNu

Defaults : s r2 g2 m1 p d1 n2

(unless otherwise specified. See Legend for more details)

Scale/Key: Cm

Band version contains notes for prelude, interludes and bay-by-bay chords

Pallavi

Why This Kolaveri Kolaveri Kolaveri Dii

R~G R~S R G R S R G G M M G R S S

Cm Bb Fm Bb

Why This Kolaveri Kolaveri Kolaveri Dii

Rhythm Correct..

Why This Kolaveri Kolaveri Kolaveri Dii?

Maintain This..

Why This Kolaveri? ....... Adi

R~G R~S R G R S SS

Cm Bb Fm Bb

Charanam 1

aaahn Distance'laa Moon'nuu Moon'nuu Moon'nu Color'ruu White'tuu

S~~~P P P PD P~M M~~P M~G M~~P M~G G~~P P P D P~M M~~P M~G

Cm Bb Fm Bb

White'tu Background Night'tuu Night'tuu Night'tu Color'ruu Black'kuu

S~~~P P P~~DP~~~~M M~~~P M~G M~~~P M~G G~~~P P P D P~M M~~~P M~G

Cm Bb Fm Bb

Charanam 2

White'tu Skin'nuu Girl'luu Girl'luu Girl'lu Heart'tuu Black'kuu

S~~P P P~~D P~M M~~P M~G M~~P M~G G~~P P P~~~D P~M M~~~P M~G

Cm Bb Fm Bb

Eyes'su Eyes'suu Meet'tuu Meet'tuu Myyi Future Dark'kuu aaaaa

S~~P P P~~D P~M M~~P M~G M~~P M~G S~PP PDP M M~~P M~G R

Cm Bb Fm Bb Gm7

Interlude

(Mama, Notes Eduthuko, Apdiye Kaila Snacks Eduthuko)

Papapapaan Papapapaaan Papapapaan Papapaan

S G P P~~S S G P M~P~M S G P P~~G G P P~~M

Fm Bb Cm Bb

Hahahahah Super mama. Ready. Ready.. One.. Two.. Three.. Four..

Apdii... Hahn... Hmmm. wah! what a changeover mama.

Ok mama, now tune change'u

Charanam 3

hmmmmmmmm Kaila Glass Only English'a

S~~~~~~~P S~DD D

Cm Fm

hmmmm Hand'la Glass'u Glass'la Scotch'u Eyes'u Full'a Tear'uuu

P M~~P P P S M~~~P P P S M~~P P P N DND PDP

Cm Bb G# Bb

Empty Life'u Girl'u Come'u Life'u Reverse'u Gear'uuu

S~PP P S S~~P P P S S~~P P P P N DND PDP

Cm Bb G# G

aahn Love'u Love'u Oh My Love'u You Showed Mee Bow'vuu

S S G P P S G P MPM S G~~P P P~G G~P MPM

Cm Bb Fm Bb

Cow'u Cow'u Holy Cow'u I Want You Here Now'uuuu

S G P P S G P MPM S G~~P P P~~G G~P P-DPM

Cm Gm7 Fm7 Bb

God'u I am Dying Now'uu She Is Happy How'vuu

S~G MG RS SR R R~G RGR Sn n~G G R~SS S~G RGR

Cm Gm7 G# Bb

This'uu Song'uu For Soup Boys'uu We Don't Have Choice'uuuuuuu

G MG R~~S SR R R~~G RGR Sn n~G G R~~S S~~~G R-GRGRS

Cm Gm7 G# Bb

Language : Tamil

Song : Why This Kolaveri

Movie : MooNu

Scale/Key: Cm (See Legend for more details)

Band version contains notes for prelude, interludes and bay-by-bay chords

Pallavi

Why This Kolaveri Kolaveri Kolaveri Dii

D~D# D#~C D D#D C D D#D#F F D#D C C

Cm Bb Fm Bb

Why This Kolaveri Kolaveri Kolaveri Dii

Rhythm Correct..

Why This Kolaveri Kolaveri Kolaveri Dii?

Maintain This..

Why This Kolaveri? ....... Adi

D~D# D~C D D#D C CC

Cm Bb Fm Bb

Charanam 1

aaahn Distance'laa Moon'nuu Moon'nuu Moon'nu Color'ruu White'tuu

C~~~G G G GG#G~F F~~G F~D# F~~G F~D# D#~G G G G# G~F F~~G F~D#

Cm Bb Fm Bb

White'tu Background Night'tuu Night'tuu Night'tu Color'ruu Black'kuu

C~~~G G G~D#G~~~~F F~~~G F~D# F~~~G F~D# D#~~G G G G# G~F F~~~G F~D#

Cm Bb Fm Bb

Charanam 2

White'tu Skin'nuu Girl'luu Girl'luu Girl'lu Heart'tuu Black'kuu

C~~G G G~G# G~F F~~G F~D# F~~G F~D# D#~G G G~~G# G~F F~~~G F~D#

Cm Bb Fm Bb

Eyes'su Eyes'suu Meet'tuu Meet'tuu Myyi Future Dark'kuu aaaaa

C~~G G G~G# G~F F~~G F~D# F~~G F~D# C~GG GG#GF F~~G F~D# D

Cm Bb Fm Bb Gm7

Interlude

(Mama, Notes Eduthuko, Apdiye Kaila Snacks Eduthuko)

Papapapaan Papapapaaan Papapapaan Papapaan

C D#G G~~C C D#G F~G~F C D#G G~D# D#G G~~F

Fm Bb Cm Bb

Hahahahah Super mama. Ready. Ready.. One.. Two.. Three.. Four..

Apdii... Hahn... Hmmm. wah! what a changeover mama.

Ok mama, now tune change'u

Charanam 3

hmmmmmmmm Kaila Glass Only English'a

C~~~~~~~G C~G#G# G#

Cm Fm

hmmmm Hand'la Glass'u Glass'la Scotch'u Eyes'u Full'a Tear'uuuuu

G F~~G G G C F~~~G G G C F~~G G G A# G#A#G#GG#G

Cm Bb G# Bb

Empty Life'u Girl'u Come'u Life'u Reverse'u Gear'uuuuu

C~GG G C C~~G G G C C~~G G G G A# G#A#G#GG#G

Cm Bb G# G

aahn Love'u Love'u Oh My Love'u You Showed Mee Bow'vuu

C C D# G G C D# G FGF C D#~G G G~D# D#~GFGF

Cm Bb Fm Bb

Cow'u Cow'u Holy Cow'u I Want You Hear Now' uuuuuu

C D#G G C D# G FGF C D#~G G G~D# D#~G G-G#GF

Cm Gm7 Fm7 Bb

God'uuu I am Dying Now'uu She Is Happy How'vuuu

C~D#FD# DC CD D D~D# DD#DCa# a#~D# D# D~CC C~D#DD#D

Cm Gm7 G# Bb

This'uu Song'uu For Soup Boys'uu We Don't Have Choice'uuuuuuuuu

D# FD# D~~C CD D D~D# DD#D Ca# a#~D# D# D~~C C~~D# D-D#DD#DC

Cm Gm7 G# Bb

Language : Sanskrit

Song : Paramam Pavithram

Album : Sri Satya Sai Bhajan - Vibuthi Mantra

Defaults : s r2 g3 m1 p d2 n3

(unless otherwise specified. See Legend for more details)

Paramam Pavithram Baba Vibhuthim

r g g r g g rgrgrs s r g

Paramam Vichitram Leela Vibhuthim

s r r s r rgrs s grg g rs s

Csus2 C

Paramartha Ishtartha Moksha Pradhanam

g g p p g p p pd pdpg p pd d

C Am

Baba Vibhuthim Idam Aasrayaami

dSdSdp p pdppg gp pdp grss

CLanguage : Sanskrit

Song : Paramam Pavithram

Album : Sri Satya Sai Bhajan - Vibuthi Mantra

Defaults : s r2 g3 m1 p d2 n3

(unless otherwise specified. See Legend for more details)

Paramam Pavithram Baba Vibhuthim

r g g r g g rgrgrs s r g

Paramam Vichitram Leela Vibhuthim

s r r s r rgrs s grg g rs s

Csus2 C

Paramartha Ishtartha Moksha Pradhanam

g g p p g p p pd pdpg p pd d

C Am

Baba Vibhuthim Idam Aasrayaami

dSdSdp p pdppg gp pdp grss

COh Ringa Ringa – 7aum Arivu – Keyboard Music Notes

Posted by Gurudev on Nov 8, 2011 in Tamil Movie Songs - Indian & Western Notations

Rating: 7.2/10 (5 votes cast)

Song Details

Song Oh Ringa Ringa - Piano Guitar Violin Flute Western Notations

Category Tamil Movie Songs - Indian & Western Notations

Movie 7aum Arivu

Music Director Harris Jayaraj

Lyrics P Vijay

Singer Benny Dayal

Suchitra

Jerry John

Starring Suriya

Shruti Haasan

Notations sa=s ri=r2 ga=g2 ma=m1 pa=p da=d1 ni=n2

unless and otherwise specified.

See Classical Indian Notation Guide for help on how to read these notes.

To convert from Indian to Western notations, see Western Notations Guide

Lo lava lava lava lavalamma

p p p p p p p p p dpm

Le lava lava lava lavalamma

m m m m m m g g m g r s

Lo lava lava lava lavalamma

p p p p p p p p p dpm

Lo lava lava lava lava lava lava lava lava

m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m

oh ringa ringa jamaikalaam gang ah

p p p d m m m m g gmgr s

eh binga binga hip pop la song ah

p p p d m m m m g gmgr s

oh andra indra natpenrume neenga

p p p d m m m m g gmgrs

va ondra ondra nam aayiram poonga

p p p d m m m m g m pn

O Vanaa Ovanaa Onnonnaa

n S S nS S nd p

Otamum Aattamum Inithaana

pd d p d d pp m g

Ovvoru Naalume Thaenthaanaa

nS S n S S n d p

Nanbanin Nanbanum Naanthanaa

p d d p d d p m g

Ye Gama Gama Nenjadangumaa

m m m m m m m m m m

Nee Nanachatha Nadaththiko Nadaththiko

m m m m m m m m m m m m m

Ye Guma Guma Kan Urangumaa

m m m m m m mm m m

Nee Kedachatha Eduththukko Eduththukko

m m m m m mm m m mm m m

Lo lava lava lava lavalamma

p p p p p p p p p d m

Le lava lava lava lavalamma

m m m m m m g g m g r s

Lo lava lava lava lavalamma

p p p p p p p p p d m

Lo lava lava lava lava lava lava lava lava

m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m

Ae Ailae Ailae Ae Ailae

m d m d m d g m

Namma Life Kooda Oru Railae

m m d m d m md g s

Ithu Oda Oda Phone Styley

mm dm dm dd g m

Nikkaathey Ninnaale

m n d m g s

O Oilae Oilae O Oilae

m d m d m d g m

Ullaasam Moththam Namma Kailae

mmd m d m d d g s

Illaatha Vaazhvu Verum Jaile

md m d m d d g m

Ulagengum Ullaale

dd n S nd nS

Niraiya Niraiyave Thullikko

p p m p p p m p p p

Kuraiya Kuraiyavae Allikko

d d p d d d p dd d

Theliya Theliyavae Kathukko

p p m p p p m p p p

Therintha Thavarugal Oththukko

d d p d d d p dn S

Ye Gama Gama Nenjadangumaa

m m m m m m m m m m

Nee Nanachatha Nadaththiko Nadaththiko

m m m m m m m m m m m m m

Ye Guma Guma Kan Urangumaa

m m m m m m mm m m

Nee Kedachatha Eduththukko Eduththukko

m m m m m mm m m mm m m

Interlude

mmdn mmmm mmdn mmmm mmdn mmmm

gggg mmmm

mmdn mmmm mmdn mmmm mmdn mmmm

gggg mmmm

A a a a a a aile

m d m d m d g m

A aa a a a aile

m dm d m d g m

A a a a a a a

m n d n d n d

A a a a a a a

m n d n d n R

Notes for next paragraph same as previous stanza

Uyirin Uyire Kaakha Kaakha Keyboard Music Notes

Posted by Gurudev on Oct 3, 2011 in Tamil Movie Songs - Indian & Western Notations

Rating: 0.0/10 (0 votes cast)

Song Details

Song Uyirin Uyirae - Piano Guitar Violin Flute Western Notations

Category Tamil Movie Songs - Indian & Western Notations

Movie Kaaka Kaaka

Music Director Harris Jayaraj

Singer KK

Suchitra

Starring Surya

Jyothika

Jeevan

Notations sa=s ri=r2 ga=g2 ma=m1 pa=p da=d1 ni=n2

unless and otherwise specified.

See Classical Indian Notation Guide for help on how to read these notes.

To convert from Indian to Western notations, see Western Notations Guide

Omaha Meeya Vahinyala Vaahinyaala

sp m p pm m p grs m p gr s

Veena Memasaaya

g m r s n s

Omohe Meeya Vahinyala Vaahinyaala

sp m p pm mdp grs m p gr s

Veena Memasaaya

r g m g rn s

Uyirin Uyirae Uyirin Uyirae

sp m p pm m p gr s

Nathiyin Madiyil Kaathu Kidakindraen

m m p g r s g m r s n s

Eera Alaigal Neerai Vaari

spm pp pm m p gr s

Mughathil Iraithum Muzhuthum Vaerkindraen

m m p gr s g m r s n s

Omaha Meeya Vahinyala Vaahinyaala

sp m p p m p grs m p gr s

Veena Memasaaya

g m r s n s

Omahe Meeya Vahinyala Vaahinyaala

sp m p p mdp grs m p gr s

Veena Memasaaya

r g m g rn s

Nagaram Neruppai Kozhunthu Vetterindaen

p g r g gr r r g r s n s

Anaintha Pinbhum Analin Maelirundaen

pg r g gr rr g r s n s

Kaalaipaniyaaga

s r g r s n

Yennai Vaari Kondaay

n s rs n m p

Naeram Kooda Ethiri Aagivida

pg r g gr rr g r s n s

Yugangal Aaga Vaedam Maarivida

p g r g gr r g r s n s

Anaithu Kondaayae

ss r gr s n

Pinbhu Aenoa Sendraai

n s rsn m p ||Uyirin Uyirae

Interlude

Sitar

sn rs gm

m m m m mg

d m g r s

p m g r s

pmgrg mpdp

pmgrg mpnp

pmgrg

dpmgm

pmgrg

dpmgm

nSRn

Sd np dm pg mr

np dm pg mr gs

Sd np dm pg mr

np dm pg mr gs

Swasamindri Thavikiraenae

ps s s ss n n n d p

Unathu Moochil Pizhaikiraenae

ps s s s n n n d p

Ithazhgalai Ithazhgalaal

pm p n pm p n3

Nirappida Vaa Pennae

p m p s r g m

Ninaivu Engoa Neenthi Chella

p s s s s n n d p

Kanavu Vanthu Kannai Killa

p s s s s n n d p

Nizhalethu Nijamethu

p m p n p m p n3

Kuzhambinaen Vaa Pennae

p m p s r g m

Kaatril Enthan Kaigal Rendum

sm m m pm g rg r r ss

Unnai Andri Yaarai Thaedum

smm mdpm gr r g r s s

Vilagi Poagaathey

s s r gr s n

Tholainthu Poavaenae

n n s rs n m

Naan Naan Naanaan

p p pdnsrgmp ||Uyirin Uyirae

Iravin Poarvai Yennai Suzhunthu

Mella Mella Moodum Thavazhnthu

Vidiyalai Thaedinean Unnidam Vaa Pennae

Paatham Engum Saavin Ranangal

Naragamaagum Kaathal Kanangal

Orumurai Madiyilae Uranguvaen Vaa Pennae

Thaamathikkum Ovvoru Kanamum

Thavanai Muraiyil Maranam Nigazhum

Arigil Vaarayo Viralgal Thaarayo

Nee Nee Neeee || Uyirin Uyirae

Hindi Songs

Teri Meri Meri Teri - Film: Bodyguard (new)

Tum Pas Aye - Film: KKHH

Pyar Manga Hai Tumhi Se - Film:College Girl

Har Ghadi Badal Rahi Hai - film : Kal Ho Na Ho

Why this Kolaveri kolaveri kolavari di

Rim jhim gire sawan - Film:Manzil

Hey shona hey shona - Film: Tara Rum Pum

Ek din aap yoon - film Yes Boss

Zikra hota hai jab kayamat ka - film: My Love (1970)

Happy birth day tune with rythm & chords

Sachi sachi teri nazarein Film:Dabang

Pal Pal Pal Har Pal - Film:Lage raho munna bhai (with chords)

Convertion from Western notes to Hindustani notes

Surili akhiyon wale - Film Veer

Ek din teri rahoonmein - Film Naqab

Sanso ko sansoo me - Film Hum Tum

Tu humsafar tu humkadam - Film Tum Mile

Meri duniya tu hi re - Film Hey Babby

Zara si dil main de jaga tu - Film Jannat

Zindagi ek safar hai suhana

Chalte chalte mere ye geet - film Chalte Chalte

Dil ibadat kar raha hai - Film Tum Mile

Zindagi do pal ki - Film Kites

Tere liye hum hai jeeye - Film Veer Zara

Tum mile (original) - Film. Tum Mile

Pancchi nadiya pawan ke jhoke - Film Refugee

Kuchh khasa hai kuch pass hai - Film Fashion

Ek pyar ka nagama hai - Film Shor (1972)

Adha hai chandrama rat aadhi - Film Navarang

Ajeeb dastan hai yeh - Film Dil Apna our Preet Parayee

Yad kiyan dil ne kahan ho tum - Film Patita

Teri ankhen bhul bhlaiya - Film Bhool Bhulaiya

Tu meri adhuri pyas pyas - Film GhazaniHindi Songs

Teri Meri Meri Teri - Film: Bodyguard (new)

Tum Pas Aye - Film: KKHH

Pyar Manga Hai Tumhi Se - Film:College Girl

Har Ghadi Badal Rahi Hai - film : Kal Ho Na Ho

Why this Kolaveri kolaveri kolavari di

Rim jhim gire sawan - Film:Manzil

Hey shona hey shona - Film: Tara Rum Pum

Ek din aap yoon - film Yes Boss

Zikra hota hai jab kayamat ka - film: My Love (1970)

Happy birth day tune with rythm & chords

Sachi sachi teri nazarein Film:Dabang

Pal Pal Pal Har Pal - Film:Lage raho munna bhai (with chords)

Convertion from Western notes to Hindustani notes

Surili akhiyon wale - Film Veer

Ek din teri rahoonmein - Film Naqab

Sanso ko sansoo me - Film Hum Tum

Tu humsafar tu humkadam - Film Tum Mile

Meri duniya tu hi re - Film Hey Babby

Zara si dil main de jaga tu - Film Jannat

Zindagi ek safar hai suhana

Chalte chalte mere ye geet - film Chalte Chalte

Dil ibadat kar raha hai - Film Tum Mile

Zindagi do pal ki - Film Kites

Tere liye hum hai jeeye - Film Veer Zara

Tum mile (original) - Film. Tum Mile

Pancchi nadiya pawan ke jhoke - Film Refugee

Kuchh khasa hai kuch pass hai - Film Fashion

Ek pyar ka nagama hai - Film Shor (1972)

Adha hai chandrama rat aadhi - Film Navarang

Ajeeb dastan hai yeh - Film Dil Apna our Preet Parayee

Yad kiyan dil ne kahan ho tum - Film Patita

Teri ankhen bhul bhlaiya - Film Bhool Bhulaiya

Tu meri adhuri pyas pyas - Film Ghazani INDIAN MUSICAL SCALE & RAGA'S

It is probably no coincidence that Greek music was also based upon seven modes. Furthermore, the Indian scales follow the same process of modulation (murchana) that was found in ancient Greek music. Since Greece is also Indo-European, this is another piece of evidence for the Indo-European correlation in the basic notes. Indian musical scale is said to have grown-up from 3 notes to a scale of 7 primary notes, on the basis of 22 intervals. A scale is divided into 22 shrutis or intervals, and these are the basis of the musical notes. Musicians as Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha and Ni know the 7 notes of the scale. These 7 notes of the scale do not have equal intervals between them.

The first and fifth notes Sa[C] and Pa [G] do not alter their positions on this interval. The other 5 notes can change their positions in the interval, leading to different ragas. As in any art, the ultimate goal is the expression of emotional quality. The primary musical vehicle for the conveyance of this emotion is rag.

THE NORTH INDIAN KEYBOARD STYLE :

In any form of art, the ultimate objective is the expression of emotional quality. The primary musical movement of notes of this emotion and combination of several notes woven into a composition in a way that is pleasant to the ear is called a Raga. Raga is the fundamental basis of Indian Classical Music. Raga must have at least five notes, starting at Sa, one principal note, a second important note and a few helping notes. The ascent and descent of the notes in every raga is very important. Some ragas in the same scale differ in ascent and descent.

Another aspect of the ragas is the appropriate distribution in time during the 24 hours of the day for its performance, i.e. the time of the day denotes the raga sung a particular time. Ragas are also allotted a particular time space in the cycle of the day. These are divided into four types—

1. A.Sandi-prakash ragas or twilight ragas when the notes re and dha are used 2. Midday and Midnight ragas which include the notes ga and ni (komal). 3. Ragas for the first quarter of the morning and night which include the notes re, ga, dha and ni (komal). 4. For the last quarter of the day and night, the ragas include the notes sa, ma and pa.

This raga classification is about 500 years old and has been adapted by Pundit V. N. Bhatkhande in his textbooks on Hindusthani music.

Another division of ragas is the classification of ragas under six principal ragas—Hindol, Deepak, Megh, Shree and Maulkauns. From these six ragas, other ragas are derived. The first derivatives of the ragas are called raginis, and each of the six ragas has five raginis under them. Further derivatives from these ragas and raginis resulted in attaching to each principal raga 16 secondary derivatives known as upa-ragas and upa-raginis.

The following list of Ragas along with that Jati, Arohan and Aborohan depicting various mood and expression are named as :

Abhogi.mid, Adna Thaat Ashavari.mid, Asavarii.mid Bageshri.mid Bahar.mid,Bairagi.mid, Basant_Mukhari.mid Basant_thaatPoorvi.mid, Behag_thaat Kalyan,Behag, Bhairav_thaat Bhairab.mid, Bhairavi_thaat Bhairavi.mid, Bhatiyar_thaat Bhairav.mid , Bhimpalasi_thaat Kafi.mid , Bhinna Shadja_thaat Khamaz.mid ,Bhopalithaat Kalyan.mid, Bhopali_Todi_thaat_Bharavi.mid,Bibhas_thaat_Bharav.midChandni_thaat Kedar.mid Chandrakauns.mid , Darbari_thaat Ashavari.mid,Desh_thaat Bilaval.mid, Desh_thaat Khamaj.mid, Durga_thaat Bilaval.mid, Gara thaat Khamaj.mid, /Hamir _thaat Kalyan.mid Hansadhawni _thaat Bilawal.mid , /Hindol _thaat Kalyan.mid, /Jaijaiwanti _thaat Khmaj.mid , Jaunpuri _thaat Asavari.mid, Kafi thaat Kafi.mid, Kalabati _thaat Khamaj.mid. Kalyan.mid, Kedar.mid, KedarNat.mid,Khambavati.mid, Lajvanti.mid, Lalit Bhairav.mid, Laltangi.mid,Madhmad Sarang _thaat Kafi.mid, Madhukauns _thaat Kafi.mid. Miya Ki Malhar.mid Madhumalati.mid,Malhar_thaat kafi.mid, Malhar_thaat kafi.mid, Malkauns Pancham_thaat Bhairavi,Pahadi.mid Peelu.mid Tilakamod,mid, Yaman kalian .

Indian Musical Rhythm has three aspects:

Tala, Laya and Matra. Tala is a complete cycle of metrical phrase composed of a fixed number of beats. There are over a 100 Talas, but only 30 Talas are known and only about 10-12 are used.

The Laya is the tempo, which keeps uniformity of time span and it has 3 divisions: vilambit (Slow), Madhya (medium) and Druta (Fast). In real application it has been found that the range could be as wide as 10 matras per minute (i.e. 6 seconds per matra) is ati vilambit laya (very slow tempo) to more than 720 matras per minute (i.e. less than 0.08 seconds a matra) in ati dhruta laya (Meter and Taal).

Matra in Sanskrit is unit of any measurement. In music, it is the basic unit of time measurement. The actual time duration of a matra depends on the speed of the rhythm i.e. Tempo the Matra is the smallest unit of the tala.

Some examples of different Tala (Indian Drum Pattern)

1. Dadra 2. Kaharwa 3. Rupak 4. Dhamar 5.Typical Indian Dholak 4-4

Hundreds of Taals are known and a twenty or so are in frequent use. The most common Taal is Teen Taal. It has 16 matras, but is called Teen (three) Taal because it has three Thalis (and khali to make four kriyas). It is usually expressed as 4 Bibhagas (sections) of 4 matras each

music

Posted by quintustheresraj on March 13, 2013 at 2:05 AM

comments (0)

Musical keyboard

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about keyboards on musical instruments. For instruments referred to as "keyboards", see Keyboard instrument.

Layout of a musical keyboard (three octaves shown)

The musical keyboard of a Steinway concert grand piano

A musical keyboard is the set of adjacent depressible levers or keys on a musical instrument, particularly the piano. Keyboards typically contain keys for playing the twelve notes of the Western musical scale, with a combination of larger, longer keys and smaller, shorter keys that repeats at the interval of an octave. Depressing a key on the keyboard causes the instrument to produce sounds, either by mechanically striking a string or tine (piano, electric piano, clavichord); plucking a string (harpsichord); causing air to flow through a pipe (organ); or strike a bell (carillon). On electric and electronic keyboards, depressing a key connects a circuit (Hammond organ, digital piano, synthesizer). Since the most commonly encountered keyboard instrument is the piano, the keyboard layout is often referred to as the "piano keyboard".

Contents [hide]

1 Description

2 Size and historical variation

2.1 Electronic keyboards

3 Playing techniques

4 Other uses

5 Keyboards with alternative sets of keys

6 See also

7 References

8 External links

[edit]Description

Harpsichord with black keys for the C major scale

The twelve notes of the Western musical scale are laid out with the lowest note on the left;[1] The longer keys (for the seven "natural" notes of the C major scale: C, D, E, F, G, A, B) jut forward. Because these keys were traditionally covered in ivory they are often called the white notes or white keys. The keys for the remaining five notes—which are not part of the C major scale—(i.e.,C♯/D♭, D♯/E♭, F♯/G♭, G♯/A♭, A♯/B♭) (see Sharp and Flat) are raised and shorter. Because these keys receive less wear, they are often made of black colored wood and called the black notes or black keys. The pattern repeats at the interval of an octave.

The arrangement of longer keys for C major with intervening, shorter keys for the intermediate semitones dates to the 15th century. Many keyboard instruments dating from before the nineteenth century, such as harpsichords and pipe organs, have a keyboard with the colours of the keys reversed: the white notes are made of ebony and the black notes are covered with softer white bone. A few electric and electronic instruments from the 1960s and subsequent decades have also done this; Vox's electronic organs of the 1960s, Farfisa's FAST portable organs, Hohner's Clavinet L, one version of Korg's Poly-800 synthesizer and Roland's digital harpsichords.

Some 1960s electronic organs used reverse colors or gray sharps or naturals to indicate the lower part(s) of a split keyboard: one divided into two parts, each of which produces a different Registration or sound. Such keyboards allow melody and contrasting accompaniment to be played without the expense of a second manual and were a regular feature in Spanish and some English organs of the renaissance and baroque. The break was between middle C and C-sharp, or outside of Iberia between B and C. Broken keyboards reappeared in 1842 with the harmonium, the split occurring at e4/f4.

The reverse-colored keys on Hammond organs such as the B3, C3 and A100 are latch-style radio buttons for selecting pre-set sounds.

[edit]Size and historical variation

Keyboards of Nicholas Faber's organ for Halberstadt, built in 1361 and enlarged 1495. The illustration is from Praetorius' Syntagma Musicum (1619). At the top is the earliest example of the "seven plus five" layout. The bottom two illustrate the earlier "eight plus four" arrangement

The chromatic compass of keyboard instruments has tended to increase. Harpsichords often extended over five octaves (61+ keys) in the 18th century, while most pianos manufactured since about 1870 have 88 keys. Some modern pianos have even more notes (a Bösendorfer 225 has 92 and a Bösendorfer 290 "Imperial" has 97 keys). While modern synthesizer keyboards commonly have either 61, 76 or 88 keys, small MIDI controllers are available with 25 notes. (Digital systems allow shifting octaves, pitch, and "splitting" ranges dynamically, reducing the need for dedicated keys.) Organs normally have 61 keys per manual, though some spinet models have 44 or 49. An organ pedalboard is a keyboard with long pedals that are played by the organist's feet. Pedalboards vary in size from 12 to 32 notes.

In a typical keyboard layout, black note keys have uniform width, and white note keys have uniform width and uniform spacing at the front of the keyboard. In the larger gaps between the black keys, the width of the natural notes C, D and E differ slightly from the width of keys F, G, A and B. This allows close to uniform spacing of 12 keys per octave while maintaining uniformity of seven "natural" keys per octave.

Over the last three hundred years, the octave span distance found on historical keyboard instruments (organs, virginals, clavichords, harpsichords, and pianos) has ranged from as little as 125 mm to as much as 170 mm. Modern piano keyboards ordinarily have an octave span of 164–165 mm; resulting in the width of black keys averaging 13.7 mm and white keys about 23.5 mm wide at the base, disregarding space between keys. Several reduced-size standards have been proposed and marketed. A 15/16 size (152 mm octave span) and the 7/8 DS Standard (140 mm octave span) keyboard developed by Christopher Donison in the 1970s and developed and marketed by Steinbuhler & Company. U.S. pianist Hannah Reimann has promoted piano keyboards with narrower octave spans and has a U.S. patent on the apparatus and methods for modifying existing pianos to provide interchangeable keyboards of different sizes.[2]

There have been variations in the design of the keyboard to address technical and musical issues. The earliest designs of keyboards were based heavily on the notes used in Gregorian chant (the seven diatonic notes plus B-flat) and as such would often include B♭ and B♮ both as diatonic "white notes," with the B♮ at the leftmost side of the keyboard and the B♭ at the rightmost. Thus, an octave would have eight "white keys" and only four "black keys." The emphasis on these eight notes would continue for a few centuries after the "seven and five" system was adopted, in the form of the short octave: the eight aforementioned notes were arranged at the leftmost side of the keyboard, compressed in the keys between E and C (at the time, accidentals that low were very uncommon and thus not needed). During the sixteenth century, when instruments were often tuned in meantone temperament, some harpsichords were constructed with the G♯ and E♭ keys split into two. One portion of the G♯ key operated a string tuned to G♯ and the other operated a string tuned to A♭, similarly one portion of the E♭ key operated a string tuned to E♭, the other portion operating a string tuned to D♯. This type of keyboard layout, known as the enharmonic keyboard, extended the flexibility of the harpsichord, enabling composers to write keyboard music calling for harmonies containing the so-called wolf fifth (G-sharp to E-flat), but without producing aural discomfort in the listeners (see: Split sharp). The "broken octave," a variation of the aforementioned short octave, similarly used split keys to add accidentals left out of the short octave. Other examples of variations in keyboard design include the Jankó keyboard and the chromatic keyboard systems on the chromatic button accordion and bandoneón.

[edit]Electronic keyboards

Electronic keyboards have switches under each key. Depressing a key connects a circuit, which triggers tone generation. Most keyboards use a keyboard matrix circuit, in which eight rows and eight columns of wires cross — thus, 16 wires can provide (8x8=) 64 crossings, which the keyboard controller scans to determine which key was pressed.[3] The problem with this system, is that it provides only a crude binary on/off signal for each key. Better electronic keyboards employ two sets of switches for each key that are slightly offset. By determining the timing between the activation of the first and second switches, the velocity of a key press can be determined — greatly improving the performance dynamic of a keyboard. The best electronic keyboards have dedicated circuits for each key providing polyphonic aftertouch.

[edit]Playing techniques

Despite their apparent similarity, keyboard instruments of different types require different techniques. The piano hammer mechanism produces a louder note the faster the key is pressed while the harpsichord's plectrum mechanism does not perceptibly vary the volume of the note with different touch on the keyboard. The pipe organ's volume and timbre are controlled by the flow of air from the bellows and the stops preselected by the player. Players of these instruments therefore use different techniques to color the sound. An arranger keyboard may be preset to produce any of a range of voices as well as percussion and other accompaniments that respond to chords played by the left hand.

A typical piano keyboard

Even though the keyboard layout is simple and all notes are easily accessible, playing requires skill. A proficient player has undertaken much training to play accurately and in tempo. Beginners seldom produce a passable rendition of even a simple piece due to lack of technique. The sequences of movements of the players hands can be very complicated. Problems include wide-spanned chords, which can be difficult for people with small hands; chords that require unusual hand positions that can initially be uncomfortable, and fast scales, trills and arpeggios.

Playing instruments with velocity sensitive (or, dynamic) keyboards (i.e., that respond to varying playing velocity) may require finger independence, so that some fingers play "harder" while others play more softly. Keyboardists speak of playing harder and softer, or with more or less force. This may accurately describe the player's experience—but in the mechanics of the keyboard, velocity controls musical dynamics. The faster the player depresses the key, the louder the note. Players must learn to coordinate two hands and use them independently. Most music is written for two hands; typically the right hand plays the melody in the treble range, while the left plays an accompaniment of bass notes and chords in the bass range. Examples of music written for the left hand alone include several of Leopold Godowsky's 53 Studies on Chopin's Etudes, Maurice Ravel's Piano Concerto for the Left Hand and Sergei Prokofiev's Piano Concerto No. 4 for the left hand. In music that uses counterpoint technique, both hands play different melodies at the same time.

[edit]Other uses

Keyboard of a Letter-Printing Telegraph Set built by Siemens & Halske in Saint Petersburg, Russia, ca. 1900

A number of percussion instruments share the keyboard layout, although they are not keyboard instruments with levers that are depressed to sound the notes. Instead, the performer of instruments such as the xylophone, marimba, vibraphone, and glockenspiel strikes the separate-sounding tone bar of metal or wood for each note using a mallet. These bars are laid out in the same configuration as a common keyboard.

There are some examples of a musical keyboard layout used for non-musical devices. For example, some of the earliest printing telegraph machines used a layout similar to a piano keyboard.[4][5]

[edit]Keyboards with alternative sets of keys

There are some rare variations of keyboards with more or fewer than 12 keys per octave, mostly used in microtonal music, after the discoveries and theoretical developments of musician and inventor Julián Carrillo (1875–1965).

Some free-reed instrument keyboards such as accordions and Indian harmoniums include microtones. Electronic music pioneer Pauline Oliveros plays one of these. Egyptian belly-dance musicians like Hassam Ramzy use custom-tuned accordions so they can play traditional scales. The small Garmon accordion played in the Music of Azerbaijan sometimes has keys that can play microtones when a "shift" key is pressed.

Frequencies of the audible range on a twelve and eight equal tempered scale

[edit]See also

Isomorphic keyboard

Enharmonic keyboard

Keytar

Piano key frequencies

[edit]References

^ An exception is the hurdy gurdy, whose crank is turned with the left hand.

^ Reimann, Hannah: Patent claim #6,020,549, August 10, 1998

^ Dave Dribin: "Keyboard Matrix Help", (June 24, 2000)

^ George M. Phelps, U.S. Patent 0,026,003 Improvement in Telegraphic Machines issued November 1, 1859

^ The House Printing Telegraph (image)

Bond, Ann (1997). A Guide to the Harpsichord. Amadeus Press. ISBN 1-57467-063-8.

[edit]External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Keyboard instruments

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Keyboard.

KeyLess Online, Western notes & Carnatic swaras laid out on the keyboard

A Piano Keyboard Layout by Piano Play It, A full layout of the Piano Keyboard with an excellent free piano tutorial

Keyboard Magazine, selections from magazine, along with multimedia examples

Electronic Keyboard News, news and reviews of keyboards, synthesizers and synth modules

Keyboard Chords, chords for keyboards

MathPages, mathematical discussion of the distribution of the keys

Keyboard quiz

The Keyboard of a Harpsichord

Instrument Junction, large number of keyboard and piano related articles

Balanced Keyboard, A modified symmetrical layout of the standard keyboard. The website shows how to build your own.

[hide] v t e

Musical keyboards & instruments

Most common

Accordion Carillon Clavichord Harpsichord Organ Piano Celesta

Layouts

Enharmonic keyboard Generalized keyboard Isomorphic keyboard Jankó keyboard Short octave

Keys

Pedal keyboard Split sharp

Pedals

Expression pedal (Swell) Soft pedal Sustain pedal

Categories: Human–machine interactionKeyboard instruments

Navigation menu

Create accountLog inArticleTalkReadEditView history

Main page

Contents

quinto-information.in

Click here to edit subtitle

News

MULTIMETER

GUITER

MOTION

DIMENSION

PRAY TO GOD

PREDITION

TSUNAMI

MUSIC NOTES

music