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Jesus

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This article is about Jesus of Nazareth. For other uses, see Jesus (disambiguation).

"Jesus Christ" redirects here. For Christian views of Jesus, see Jesus in Christianity.

Jesus

Jesus depicted as the Good Shepherd

(stained glass at St John's Ashfield)

Born 7–2 BC/BCE[1]

Judea, Roman Empire[2]

Died 30–36 AD/CE[3]

Judea, Roman Empire

Cause of death Crucifixion[4][5]

Home town Nazareth, Galilee[6]

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Jesus (pron.: /ˈdʒiːzəs/; Greek: Ἰησοῦς Iēsous; 7–2 BC/BCE to 30–36 AD/CE), also referred to as Jesus of Nazareth, is the central figure of Christianity, whom the teachings of most Christian denominations hold to be the Son of God, and is regarded as a major Prophet in Islam.[7] Christians hold Jesus to be the awaited Messiah of the Old Testament and refer to him as Jesus Christ or simply as Christ,[8] a name that is also used secularly.

Virtually all contemporary scholars of antiquity agree that Jesus existed.[9][10] While the quest for the historical Jesus has produced little agreement on the historicity of gospel narratives and their theological assertions of his divinity,[11][12] most scholars agree that Jesus was a Jewish teacher from Galilee in Roman Judea, was baptized by John the Baptist, and was crucified in Jerusalem on the orders of the Roman Prefect, Pontius Pilate.[4][13][10] Scholars have offered various portraits of the historical Jesus, which at times share a number of overlapping attributes, such as the leader of an apocalyptic movement, Messiah, a charismatic healer, a sage and philosopher, or a social reformer who preached of the "Kingdom of God" as a means for personal and egalitarian social transformation.[14][15] Scholars have correlated the New Testament accounts with non-Christian historical records to arrive at an estimated chronology of Jesus' life.[16]

Most Christians believe that Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit, born of a virgin, performed miracles, founded the Church, died sacrificially by crucifixion to achieve atonement, rose from the dead, and ascended into heaven, from which he will return.[17] The majority of Christians worship Jesus as the incarnation of God the Son, and the Second Person of the Holy Trinity.[18] A few Christian groups reject Trinitarianism, wholly or partly, as non-scriptural.[18][19]

In Islam, Jesus (commonly transliterated as Isa) is considered one of God's important prophets.[20] In Islam, Jesus is a bringer of scripture, and the product of a virgin birth, but not the victim of crucifixion. Judaism rejects the belief that Jesus was the awaited Messiah, arguing that he did not fulfill the Messianic prophecies in the Tanakh.[21] Bahá'í scripture almost never refers to Jesus as the Messiah, but calls him a Manifestation of God.[22]

Contents [hide]

1 Etymology of names

2 Chronology

2.1 Year of birth

2.2 Years of ministry

2.3 Year of death

3 Life and teachings in the New Testament

3.1 Canonical gospel accounts

3.2 Genealogy and Nativity

3.3 Early life and profession

3.4 Baptism and temptation

3.5 Ministry

3.6 Teachings and preachings

3.7 Proclamation as Christ and Transfiguration

3.8 Final week: betrayal, arrest, trial, and death

3.9 Resurrection and ascension

4 Historical views

4.1 Existence

4.2 Ancient sources and archeology

4.3 Language, race and appearance

4.4 Depictions

4.5 Relics associated with Jesus

4.6 Historical analysis

5 Religious perspectives

5.1 Christian views

5.2 Jewish views

5.3 Islamic views

5.4 Bahá'í views

5.5 Other views

5.6 Criticism

6 See also

7 References

8 Bibliography

9 External links

Etymology of names

Further information: Jesus (name), Holy Name of Jesus, Name of God in Christianity, and Yeshua (name)

"Jesus" is a transliteration, occurring in a number of languages and based on the Latin Iesus, of the Greek Ἰησοῦς (Iēsoûs), itself a hellenization of the Aramaic/Hebrew ישוע‎ (Yēšûă‘) which is a post-Exilic modification of the Hebrew יְהוֹשֻׁעַ‎ (Yĕhōšuă‘, Joshua) under influence from Aramaic.[23] In the Quran, it is عيسى‎ (‘Īsa).[24][25]

The etymology of the name Jesus in the context of the New Testament is generally expressed as "Yahweh saves",[26] "Yahweh is salvation"[27] The name Jesus appears to have been in use in Judea at the time of the birth of Jesus.[28] The first century works of historian Flavius Josephus refer to at least twenty different people with the name Jesus.[29] Philo's reference (Mutatione Nominum item 121) indicates that the etymology of the name Joshua was known outside Judea at the time.[30]

In the Bible he is referred to as "Jesus from Nazareth",[Mt 21:11] "Joseph's son",[Lk 4:22] and "Jesus son of Joseph from Nazareth".[Jn 1:45] Paul the Apostle most often referred to Jesus as "Jesus Christ", "Christ Jesus", or "Christ".[31] "Christ" (pron.: /ˈkraɪst/) is derived from the Greek Χριστός (Khrīstos), meaning "the anointed" or "the anointed one", a translation of the Hebrew מָשִׁיחַ (Māšîaḥ), usually transliterated into English as "Messiah" (pron.: /mɨˈsaɪ.ə/).[32] In the Septuagint version of the Hebrew Bible (written well over a century before the time of Jesus), the word "Christ" (Χριστός) was used to translate the Hebrew word "Messiah" (מָשִׁיחַ) into Greek.[33] In Matthew 16:16, the apostle Peter's profession "You are the Christ" identifies Jesus as the Messiah.[34] In postbiblical usage, "Christ" became viewed as a name, one part of "Jesus Christ", but originally it was a title ("Jesus the Anointed").[35]

Chronology

Main article: Chronology of Jesus

Judea and Galilee at the time of Jesus.

Although a few scholars have questioned the existence of Jesus as an actual historical figure,[36] and some early Christian sects denied that Jesus existed as a physical being (see below), most scholars involved with historical Jesus research believe he existed, but that the supernatural claims associated with him cannot be established using documentary and other evidence.[10][37] As discussed in the sections immediately below, the estimation of the year of death of Jesus places his lifespan around the beginning of the 1st century AD/CE, in the geographic region of Judea.[38][39][40][41]

Roman involvement in Judea began around 63 BC/BCE and by 6 AD/CE Judea had become a Roman province.[42] From 26–37 AD/CE Pontius Pilate was the governor of Roman Judea.[43] In this time period, although Roman Judea was strategically positioned in the Near East, close to Arabia and North Africa, it was not viewed as a critically important province by the Romans.[44][45] At the time the Romans were highly tolerant of other religions and allowed the local populations such as the Jews to practice their own faiths.[42]

Year of birth

Further information: Anno Domini, Common Era, and Year zero

In the fourth century, Christians in the West began celebrating the birth of Jesus on December 25 by tradition.[46] But Christians in the East held it on January 6.[47] The Chronography of 354 illuminated manuscript including an early reference to the Nativity feast on December 25th.[47] However, the New Testament includes no mention of the date or season of Jesus' birth and there are no other historical records that pertain to it.[48]

Two independent approaches have been used to estimate the year of the birth of Jesus, one involving analysis of the Nativity accounts in the Gospels of Luke and Matthew along with other historical data, and the other working backwards from the estimation of the start of the ministry of Jesus, as also discussed in the next section.[49][50]

In its Nativity account, the Gospel of Matthew associates the birth of Jesus with the reign of Herod the Great, who is generally believed to have died around 4 BC/BCE.[50][51] Matthew 2:1 states that: "Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judaea in the days of Herod the king" and Luke 1:5 mentions the reign of Herod shortly before the birth of Jesus.[50] However, Luke's gospel describes the birth as taking place during the first census, which is generally believed to have occurred in 6 AD/CE.[52] Most scholars generally assume a date of birth between 6 and 4 BC/BCE.[53] Other scholars assume that Jesus was born sometime between 7 and 2 BC/BCE.[54]

The year of Jesus' birth has also been estimated in a manner that is independent of the Nativity accounts, by using information in the Gospel of John to work backwards from the statement in Luke 3:23 that Jesus was "about 30 years of age" at the start of his ministry.[55][49] As discussed in the section below, by combining information from John 2:13 and John 2:20 with the writings of Flavius Josephus, it has been estimated that around 27–29 AD/CE, Jesus was "about thirty years of age".[56][57] Some scholars thus estimate the year 28 AD/CE to be roughly the 32nd birthday of Jesus and the birth year of Jesus to be around 6–4 BC/BCE.[55][49][58]

The Gregorian calendar method for numbering years, in which the current year is 2013, is based on the decision the 6th century monk Dionysius to count the years from a point of reference (namely, Jesus’ birth) which he placed in either 1 BC (Before Christ) or 1 AD (Anno Domini).[59]

Years of ministry

Main article: Ministry of Jesus

Israel Museum model of Herod's Temple, referred to in John 2:13.

There have been different approaches to estimating the date of the start of the ministry of Jesus.[55][56][57][60] One approach, based on combining information from the Gospel of Luke with historical data about Emperor Tiberius yields a date around 28–29 AD/CE, while a second independent approach based on statements in the Gospel of John along with historical information from Josephus about the Temple in Jerusalem leads to a date around 27–29 AD/CE.[49][56][57][61] A third method uses the date of the death of John the Baptist and the marriage of Herod Antipas to Herodias based on the writings of Josephus, and correlates it to Matthew 14:4.[62][63]

The estimation of the date based on the Gospel of Luke relies on the statement in Luke 3:1–2 that the ministry of John the Baptist which preceded that of Jesus began "in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar".[56] Given that Tiberius began his reign in 14 AD/CE, this yields a date about 28–29 AD/CE.[55][56][58][64]

The estimation of the date based on the Gospel of John uses the statements in John 2:13 that Jesus went to the Temple in Jerusalem around the start of his ministry and in John 2:20 that "Forty and six years was this temple in building" at that time.[49][56] According to Josephus (Ant 15.380) the temple reconstruction was started by Herod the Great in the 15th–18th year of his reign at about the time that Augustus arrived in Syria (Ant 15.354).[55][56][65] Temple expansion and reconstruction was ongoing, and it was in constant reconstruction until it was destroyed in 70 AD/CE by the Romans.[66] Given that it took 46 years of construction, the Temple visit in the Gospel of John has been estimated at around 27–29 AD/CE.[49][56][61][67]

Scholars estimates that John the Baptist's imprisonment probably occurred around AD/CE 30–32.[63][68] The death of John the Baptist relates to the end of the major Galilean ministry of Jesus, just before the half way point in the gospel narratives.[69] Luke 3:23 states that at the start of his ministry Jesus was "about 30 years of age".[49] The length of the ministry is subject to debate, based on the fact that the synoptic gospels mention only one passover during Jesus' ministry, often interpreted as implying that the ministry lasted approximately one year, whereas the Gospel of John records multiple passovers, implying that his ministry may have lasted at least three years.[55][49][70]

Year of death

Main article: Chronology of Jesus

A 1466 copy of Antiquities of the Jews

A number of approaches have been used to estimate the year of the death of Jesus, including information from the canonical gospels, the chronology of the life of Paul the Apostle in the New Testament correlated with historical events, as well as different astronomical models, as discussed below.

The four gospels report that Jesus was crucified by Pontius Pilate, who governed Roman Judea from 26 to 36 AD/CE. Jewish historian Josephus,[71] writing in Antiquities of the Jews (c. 93 AD/CE), and the early 2nd century Roman historian Tacitus,[72] writing in The Annals (c. 116 AD/CE), also state that Pilate ordered the execution of Jesus.[39]

The estimation of the date of the conversion of Paul places the death of Jesus before this conversion, which is estimated at around 33–36 AD/CE.[73][74][75] The estimation of the year of Paul's conversion relies on a series of calculations working backwards from the well established date of his trial before Gallio in Achaea Greece (Acts 18:12–17) around 51–52 AD/CE, the meeting with Priscilla and Aquila who may have been expelled from Rome about 49 AD/CE and the 14-year period before returning to Jerusalem in Galatians 2:1.[73][74][75] The remaining period is generally accounted for by Paul's missions such as those in Acts 11:25–26 and 2 Corinthians 11:23–33, resulting in the 33–36 AD/CE estimate.[73][74][75]

Isaac Newton was one of the first astronomers to estimate the date of the crucifixion and suggested Friday, April 3, 34 AD/CE.[40][76] In 1990 astronomer Bradley E. Schaefer computed the date as Friday, April 3, 33 AD/CE.[77] In 1991, John Pratt stated that Newton's method was sound, but included a minor error at the end. Pratt suggested the year 33 AD/CE as the answer.[40] Using the completely different approach of a lunar eclipse model, Humphreys and Waddington arrived at the conclusion that Friday, April 3, 33 AD/CE was the date of the crucifixion.[78][41][79]

Life and teachings in the New Testament

Main article: Life of Jesus in the New Testament

See also: New Testament places associated with Jesus and Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament

Although the four canonical gospels, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, are the main sources for the biography of Jesus’ life, other parts of the New Testament, such as the Pauline epistles which were likely written decades before them, also include references to key episodes in his life such as the Last Supper, as in 1 Corinthians 11:23–26.[80][81][82] The Acts of the Apostles (10:37–38 and 19:4) refers to the early ministry of Jesus and its anticipation by John the Baptist.[83][84] And Acts 1:1–11 says more about the Ascension episode (also mentioned in 1 Timothy 3:16) than the canonical gospels.[85]

According to the majority viewpoint, the Synoptic Gospels are the primary sources of historical information about Jesus,[86][87][88] and of the religious movement he founded, but not everything contained in the gospels is considered to be historically reliable.[89] Elements whose historical authenticity are disputed include the two accounts of the Nativity of Jesus, as well as the resurrection and certain details about the crucifixion.[90][91][92] On one extreme, some Christian scholars maintain that the gospels are inerrant descriptions of the life of Jesus.[93] On the other extreme, some scholars have concluded that the gospels provide no historical information about Jesus' life.[94]

Canonical gospel accounts

See also: Gospel harmony, Historical reliability of the Gospels, and Internal consistency of the New Testament

A 3rd-century Greek papyrus of Luke

Three of the four canonical gospels, namely Matthew, Mark, and Luke, are known as the synoptic Gospels, from the Greek σύν (syn "together") and ὄψις (opsis "view"), given that they display a high degree of similarity in content, narrative arrangement, language and paragraph structure.[95][96][97] The presentation in the fourth canonical gospel, i.e. John, differs from these three in that it has more of a thematic nature rather than a narrative format.[98][99] Scholars generally agree that it is impossible to find any direct literary relationship between the synoptic gospels and the Gospel of John.[98]

However, in general, the authors of the New Testament showed little interest in an absolute chronology of Jesus or in synchronizing the episodes of his life with the secular history of the age.[100] The gospels were primarily written as theological documents in the context of early Christianity with the chronological timelines as a secondary consideration.[101] One manifestation of the gospels being theological documents rather than historical chronicles is that they devote about one third of their text to just seven days, namely the last week of the life of Jesus in Jerusalem, referred to as Passion Week.[102]

Although the gospels do not provide enough details to satisfy the demands of modern historians regarding exact dates, it is possible to draw from them a general picture of the life story of Jesus.[100][101][103] However, as stated in John 21:25 the gospels do not claim to provide an exhaustive list of the events in the life of Jesus.[104] Since the 2nd century attempts have been made to harmonize the gospel accounts into a single narrative; Tatian's Diatesseron perhaps being the first.[105][106][106][107] There are differences in specific temporal sequences in the gospel accounts, in the parables and miracles listed in each gospel, and while the flow of the some events such as Baptism, Transfiguration and Crucifixion and interactions with people such as the Apostles are shared among the synoptic gospel narratives, events such as the Transfiguration do not appear in John's Gospel which also differs on other issues such as the Cleansing of the Temple.[100][101][108][109]

Key elements and the five major milestones

The five major milestones in the gospel narrative of the life of Jesus are his Baptism, Transfiguration, Crucifixion, Resurrection and Ascension.[110][111][112] These are usually bracketed by two other episodes: his Nativity at the beginning and the sending of the Holy Spirit at the end.[110][112] The gospel accounts of the teachings of Jesus are often presented in terms of specific categories involving his "works and words", e.g. his ministry, parables and miracles.[113][114]

The gospels include a number of discourses by Jesus on specific occasions, e.g. the Sermon on the Mount or the Farewell Discourse, and also include over 30 parables, spread throughout the narrative, often with themes that relate to the sermons.[115] John 14:10 stresses the importance of the words of Jesus, and attributes them to the authority of God the Father.[116][117] The gospel episodes that include descriptions of the miracle of Jesus also often include teachings, providing an intertwining of his "words and works" in the gospels.[114][118]

Nativity

Baptism

Teachings and Sermons

Parables

Miracles

Passion and Crucifixion

Resurrection and Appearances

Ascension

Genealogy and Nativity

Major events in

Jesus' life

in the Gospels

Nativity

Baptism

Temptation

Ministry

Commissioning the 12

Sermon on the Mount

Rejection

Transfiguration

Palm Sunday

Temple cleansing

Second coming prophecy

Anointing

Last supper

Paraclete promised

Passion:

Arrest

Sanhedrin trial

Pilate's court

Crucifixion

Entombment

Resurrection

Appearances

Great Commission

Ascension

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Main articles: Genealogy of Jesus and Nativity of Jesus

The accounts of the genealogy and Nativity of Jesus in the New Testament appear only in the Gospel of Luke and the Gospel of Matthew. While there are documents outside of the New Testament which are more or less contemporary with Jesus and the gospels, many shed no light on the more biographical aspects of his life and these two gospel accounts remain the main sources of information on the genealogy and Nativity.[103]

Matthew begins his gospel in 1:1 with the genealogy of Jesus, and presents it before the account of the birth of Jesus, while Luke discusses the genealogy in chapter 3, after the Baptism of Jesus in Luke 3:22 when the voice from Heaven addresses Jesus and identifies him as the Son of God.[119] At that point Luke traces Jesus' ancestry through Adam to God.[119]

The Nativity is a prominent element in the Gospel of Luke. It comprises over 10 percent of the text, and is three times the length of the nativity text in Matthew.[120] Luke's account takes place mostly before the birth of Jesus and centers on Mary, while Matthew's takes place mostly after the birth of Jesus and centers on Joseph.[121][122][123] According to Luke and Matthew, Jesus was born to Joseph and Mary, his betrothed, in Bethlehem. Both support the doctrine of the Virgin Birth in which Jesus was miraculously conceived in his mother's womb by the Holy Spirit, when his mother was still a virgin.[124]

In Luke 1:31–38 Mary learns from the angel Gabriel that she will conceive and bear a child called Jesus through the action of the Holy Spirit. When Mary is due to give birth, she and Joseph travel from Nazareth to Joseph's ancestral home in Bethlehem to register in the census of Quirinius. In Luke 2:1–7. Mary gives birth to Jesus and, having found no room for themselves in the inn, places the newborn in a manger. An angel visits the shepherds and sends them to adore the child in Luke 2:22. After presenting Jesus at the Temple, Joseph and Mary return home to Nazareth.[122][125]

Following his betrothal to Mary, Joseph is troubled in Matthew 1:19–20 because Mary is pregnant, but in the first of Joseph's three dreams an angel assures him not be afraid to take Mary as his wife, because her child was conceived by the Holy Spirit.[126]

In Matthew 1:1–12, the Wise Men or Magi bring gifts to the young Jesus as the King of the Jews. King Herod hears of Jesus' birth, but before the Massacre of the Innocents Joseph is warned by an angel in his dream and the family flees to Egypt, after which they return and settle in Nazareth.[126][127][128]

Early life and profession

Main article: Child Jesus

See also: Return of young Jesus to Nazareth

In the Gospels of Luke and Matthew, Jesus’ childhood home is identified as the town of Nazareth in Galilee. Joseph, husband of Mary, appears in descriptions of Jesus’ childhood and no mention is made of him thereafter.[129] The New Testament books of Matthew, Mark, and Galatians mention Jesus’ brothers and sisters, but the Greek word adelphos in these verses, has also been translated as brother or kinsman.[130]

In Mark 6:3 Jesus is called a tekton (τέκτων in Greek), usually understood to mean carpenter. Matthew 13:55 says he was the son of a tekton.[32]:170 Tekton has been traditionally translated into English as "carpenter", but it is a rather general word (from the same root that leads to "technical" and "technology") that could cover makers of objects in various materials, even builders.[131][132]

Beyond the New Testament accounts, the specific association of the profession of Jesus with woodworking is a constant in the traditions of the 1st and 2nd centuries and Justin Martyr (d. ca. 165) wrote that Jesus made yokes and ploughs.[133]

Baptism and temptation

Main articles: Baptism of Jesus, Temptation of Christ, and John the Baptist

Trevisani's depiction of the typical baptismal scene with the sky opening and the Holy Spirit descending as a dove, 1723[134]

In the gospels, the accounts of the Baptism of Jesus are always preceded by information about John the Baptist and his ministry.[108][135][136] In these accounts, John was preaching for penance and repentance for the remission of sins and encouraged the giving of alms to the poor (as in Luke 3:11) as he baptized people in the area of the River Jordan around Perea about the time of the commencement of the ministry of Jesus. The Gospel of John (1:28) specifies "Bethany beyond the Jordan", i.e. Bethabara in Perea, when it initially refers to it and later John 3:23 refers to further baptisms in Ænon "because there was much water there".[137][138]

The four gospels are not the only references to John's ministry around the River Jordan. In Acts 10:37–38, Peter refers to how the ministry of Jesus followed "the baptism which John preached".[84] In the Antiquities of the Jews (18.5.2) 1st century historian Josephus also wrote about John the Baptist and his eventual death in Perea.[139][140]

In the gospels, John had been foretelling (as in Luke 3:16) of the arrival of a someone "mightier than I".[141][142] Apostle Paul also refers to this anticipation by John in Acts 19:4.[83] In Matthew 3:14, upon meeting Jesus, the Baptist states: "I need to be baptized by you." However, Jesus persuades John to baptize him nonetheless.[143] In the baptismal scene, after Jesus emerges from the water, the sky opens and a voice from Heaven states: "This is my beloved Son with whom I am well pleased". The Holy Spirit then descends upon Jesus as a dove in Matthew 3:13–17, Mark 1:9–11, Luke 3:21–23.[141][142][143] In John 1:29–33 rather than a direct narrative, the Baptist bears witness to the episode.[142][144] This is one of two cases in the gospels where a voice from Heaven calls Jesus "Son", the other being in the Transfiguration of Jesus episode.[145][146]

After the baptism, the synoptic gospels proceed to describe the Temptation of Jesus, but John 1:35–37 narrates the first encounter between Jesus and two of his future disciples, who were then disciples of John the Baptist.[147][148] In this narrative, the next day the Baptist sees Jesus again and calls him the Lamb of God and the "two disciples heard him speak, and they followed Jesus".[144][147][149] The Temptation of Jesus is narrated in the three synoptic gospels after his baptism.[148][150]

Ministry

Main article: Ministry of Jesus

A 1923 map of Galilee around 50 AD/CE. Nazareth is towards the center.

Luke 3:23 states that Jesus was "about 30 years of age" at the start of his ministry.[55][49] The date of the start of his ministry has been estimated at around 27–29 AD/CE, based on independent approaches which combine separate gospel accounts with other historical data.[55][49][56][57][61] The end of his ministry is estimated to be in the range 30–36 AD/CE.[55][73][49][151]

The gospel accounts place the beginning of Jesus' ministry in the countryside of Judea, near the River Jordan.[136] Jesus' ministry begins with his Baptism by John the Baptist (Matthew 3, Luke 3), and ends with the Last Supper with his disciples (Matthew 26, Luke 22) in Jerusalem.[135][136] The gospels present John the Baptist's ministry as the precursor to that of Jesus and the Baptism as marking the beginning of Jesus' ministry, after which Jesus travels, preaches and performs miracles.[108][135][136]

The Early Galilean ministry begins when Jesus goes back to Galilee from the Judaean Desert after rebuffing the temptation of Satan.[152] In this early period Jesus preaches around Galilee and in Matthew 4:18–20 his first disciples encounter him, begin to travel with him and eventually form the core of the early Church.[136][153] This period includes the Sermon on the Mount, one of the major discourses of Jesus.[153][154]

The Major Galilean ministry which begins in Matthew 8 refers to activities up to the death of John the Baptist. It includes the Calming the storm and a number of other miracles and parables.[155][156] The Final Galilean ministry includes the Feeding the 5000 and Walking on water episodes, both in Matthew 14.[157][158] The end of this period (as Matthew 16 and Mark 8 end) marks a turning point is the ministry of Jesus with the dual episodes of Confession of Peter and the Transfiguration.[159][160][161][162]

As Jesus travels towards Jerusalem, in the Later Perean ministry, about one third the way down from the Sea of Galilee along the Jordan, he returns to the area where he was baptized, and in John 10:40–42.[163] The Final ministry in Jerusalem is sometimes called the Passion Week and begins with the Jesus' triumphal entry into Jerusalem on Palm Sunday.[164] In that week in the synoptic gospels Jesus drives the money changers from the Temple, and Judas bargains to betray him. John's Gospel places the Temple incident during the early part of Jesus' ministry, and scholars differ on whether these are one or two separate incidents.[165] This period culminates in the Last Supper, and the Farewell discourse. The accounts of the ministry of Jesus generally end with the Last Supper.[108][164][166]

Teachings and preachings

Main articles: Sermon on the Mount and Parables of Jesus

See also: Sermon on the Plain, Five Discourses of Matthew, Farewell Discourse, and Olivet Discourse

Jesus Christ Pantocrator – ancient mosaic from Hagia Sophia

In the New Testament the teachings of Jesus are presented in terms of his "words and works".[113][114] The words of Jesus include a number of sermons, as well as parables that appear throughout the narrative of the synoptic gospels (the Gospel of John includes no parables). The works include the miracles and other acts performed during his ministry.[114] Although the canonical gospels are the major source of the teachings of Jesus, the Pauline epistles, which were likely written decades before the gospels, provide some of the earliest written accounts of the teachings of Jesus.[80]

The New Testament does not present the teachings of Jesus as merely his own preachings, but equates the words of Jesus with divine revelation, with John the Baptist stating in John 3:34: "he whom God hath sent speaketh the words of God" and Jesus stating in John 7:16: "My teaching is not mine, but his that sent me" and again re-asserting that in John 14:10: "the words that I say unto you I speak not from myself: but the Father abiding in me doeth his works."[117][167] In Matthew 11:27 Jesus claims divine knowledge, stating: "No one knows the Son except the Father and no one knows the Father except the Son", asserting the mutual knowledge he has with the Father.[168][169]

Parables represent a major component of the teachings of Jesus in the gospels, the approximately thirty parables forming about one third of his recorded teachings.[115][116] The parables may appear within longer sermons, as well as other places within the narrative.[170] Jesus' parables are seemingly simple and memorable stories, often with imagery, and each conveys a teaching which usually relates the physical world to the spiritual world.[171][172]

The gospel episodes that include descriptions of the miracle of Jesus also often include teachings, providing an intertwining of his "words and works" in the gospels.[114][118] Many of the miracles in the gospels teach the importance of faith, for instance in Cleansing ten lepers and Daughter of Jairus the beneficiaries are told that they were healed due to their faith.[173][174]

Proclamation as Christ and Transfiguration

Main articles: Confession of Peter and Transfiguration of Jesus

Transfiguration of Jesus depicting him with Elijah, Moses and 3 apostles by Carracci, 1594

At about the middle of each of the three synoptic gospels, two related episodes mark a turning point in the narrative: the Confession of Peter and the Transfiguration of Jesus.[159][160] These episodes begin in Caesarea Philippi just north of the Sea of Galilee at the beginning of the final journey to Jerusalem which ends in the Passion and Resurrection of Jesus.[175] These episodes mark the beginnings of the gradual disclosure of the identity of Jesus to his disciples; and his prediction of his own suffering and death.[145][146][159][160][175]

Peter's Confession begins as a dialogue between Jesus and his disciples in Matthew 16:13, Mark 8:27 and Luke 9:18. Jesus asks his disciples: But who do you say that I am? Simon Peter answers him: You are the Christ, the Son of the living God.[175][176][177] In Matthew 16:17 Jesus blesses Peter for his answer, and states: "flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my Father who is in heaven." In blessing Peter, Jesus not only accepts the titles Christ and Son of God which Peter attributes to him, but declares the proclamation a divine revelation by stating that his Father in Heaven had revealed it to Peter.[178] In this assertion, by endorsing both titles as divine revelation, Jesus unequivocally declares himself to be both Christ and the Son of God.[178][179]

The account of the Transfiguration of Jesus appears in Matthew 17:1–9, Mark 9:2–8, Luke 9:28–36.[145][146][160] Jesus takes Peter and two other apostles with him and goes up to a mountain, which is not named. Once on the mountain, Matthew (17:2) states that Jesus "was transfigured before them; his face shining as the sun, and his garments became white as the light."[180] A bright cloud appears around them, and a voice from the cloud states: "This is my beloved Son, with whom I am well pleased; listen to him".[145] The Transfiguration not only supports the identity of Jesus as the Son of God (as in his Baptism), but the statement "listen to him", identifies him as the messenger and mouth-piece of God.[181]

Final week: betrayal, arrest, trial, and death

The description of the last week of the life of Jesus (often called the Passion week) occupies about one third of the narrative in the canonical gospels.[102] The narrative for that week starts by a description of the final entry into Jerusalem, and ends with his crucifixion.[108][164]

The Last Supper has been depicted by many artistic masters.[182]

The last week in Jerusalem is the conclusion of the journey which Jesus had started in Galilee through Perea and Judea.[164] Just before the account of the final entry of Jesus into Jerusalem, the Gospel of John includes the Raising of Lazarus episode, which builds the tension between Jesus and the authorities. At the beginning of the week as Jesus enters Jerusalem, he is greeted by the cheering crowds, adding to that tension.[164]

During the week of his "final ministry in Jerusalem", Jesus visits the Temple, and has a conflict with the money changers about their use of the Temple for commercial purposes. This is followed by a debate with the priests and the elder in which his authority is questioned. One of his disciples, Judas Iscariot, decides to betray Jesus for thirty pieces of silver.[183]

Towards the end of the week, Jesus has the Last Supper with his disciples, during which he institutes the Eucharist, and prepares them for his departure in the Farewell Discourse. After the supper, Jesus is betrayed with a kiss while he is in agony in the garden, and is arrested. After his arrest, Jesus is abandoned by most of his disciples, and Peter denies him three times, as Jesus had predicted during the Last Supper.[184][185]

Jesus is first questioned by the Sanhedrin, and is then tried by Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor of Judea. After the scourging of Jesus, and his mocking as the King of the Jews Pilate orders the crucifixion.[186][187]

Thus the final week that begins with his entry into Jerusalem, concludes with his crucifixion and burial on that Friday, as described in the next 5 sub-sections. The New Testament accounts then describe the resurrection of Jesus three days later, on the Sunday following his death.

Final entry into Jerusalem

Main articles: Triumphal entry into Jerusalem, Cleansing of the Temple, and Bargain of Judas

Matthew 21:5 relates Jesus' entry to Zechariah (9:9): "the King cometh unto thee, meek, and sitting upon an ass." Traditionally, arrival on a donkey signifies peace, while war-waging kings ride horses.[188][189][190]

In the four canonical gospels, Jesus' Triumphal entry into Jerusalem takes place at the beginning of the last week of his life, a few days before the Last Supper, marking the beginning of the Passion narrative.[188][191][192][193][194] After leaving Bethany Jesus rides a donkey into Jerusalem, with Mark and John specifying Sunday, Matthew Monday, and Luke not mentioning the day.[188][191][192] As Jesus rode into Jerusalem the people there laid down their cloaks in front of him, and also lay down small branches of trees and sang part of Psalm 118: 25–26.[188][190][191][192]

In the three synoptic gospels, entry into Jerusalem is followed by the Cleansing of the Temple episode, in which Jesus expels the money changers from the Temple, accusing them of turning the Temple to a den of thieves through their commercial activities. This is the only account of Jesus using physical force in any of the gospels.[168][165][195] John 2:13–16 includes a similar narrative much earlier, and scholars debate if these refer to the same episode.[168][165][195] The synoptics include a number of well known parables and sermons such as the Widow's mite and the Second Coming Prophecy during the week that follows.[191][192]

In that week, the synoptics also narrate conflicts between Jesus and the elders of the Jews, in episodes such as the Authority of Jesus Questioned and the Woes of the Pharisees in which Jesus criticizes their hypocrisy.[191][192] Judas Iscariot, one of the twelve apostles approaches the Jewish elders and performs the "Bargain of Judas" in which he accepts to betray Jesus and hand him over to the elders.[196][183][197] Matthew specifies the price as thirty silver coins.[183]

Last Supper

Main article: Last Supper

See also: Jesus predicts his betrayal, Denial of Peter, and Last Supper in Christian art

Jesus with the Eucharist (detail), by Juan de Juanes, mid–late 16th century

In the New Testament, the Last Supper is the final meal that Jesus shares with his twelve apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion. The Last Supper is mentioned in all four canonical gospels, and Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians (11:23–26), which was likely written before the gospels, also refers to it.[81][82][198][199]

In all four gospels, during the meal, Jesus predicts that one of his Apostles will betray him.[184] Jesus is described as reiterating, despite each Apostle's assertion that he would not betray Jesus, that the betrayer would be one of those who were present. In Matthew 26:23–25 and John 13:26–27 Judas is specifically singled out as the traitor.[81][82][184]

In Matthew 26:26–29, Mark 14:22–25, Luke 22:19–20 Jesus takes bread, breaks it and gives it to the disciples, saying: "This is my body which is given for you".[81][200] Although the Gospel of John does not include a description of the bread and wine ritual during the Last Supper, most scholars agree that John 6:58–59 (the Bread of Life Discourse) has a Eucharistic nature and resonates with the "words of institution" used in the synoptic gospels and the Pauline writings on the Last Supper.[201]

In all four gospels Jesus predicts that Peter will deny knowledge of him, stating that Peter will disown him three times before the rooster crows the next morning. The synoptics mention that after the arrest of Jesus Peter denied knowing him three times, but after the third denial, heard the rooster crow and recalled the prediction as Jesus turned to look at him. Peter then began to cry bitterly.[202][203]

The Gospel of John provides the only account of Jesus washing his disciples' feet before the meal.[204] John's Gospel also includes a long sermon by Jesus, preparing his disciples (now without Judas) for his departure. Chapters 14–17 of the Gospel of John are known as the Farewell discourse given by Jesus, and are a rich source of Christological content.[205][206]

Agony in the Garden, betrayal and arrest

Main articles: Agony in the Garden, Kiss of Judas, and Arrest of Jesus

See also: Holy Hour

In Matthew 26:36–46, Mark 14:32–42, Luke 22:39–46 and John 18:1, immediately after the Last Supper, Jesus takes a walk to pray, Matthew and Mark identifying this place of prayer as Garden of Gethsemane.[207][208]

While in the Garden, Judas appears, accompanied by a crowd that includes the Jewish priests and elders and people with weapons. Judas gives Jesus a kiss to identify him to the crowd who then arrests Jesus.[208][209] One of Jesus' disciples tries to stop them and uses a sword to cut off the ear of one of the men in the crowd.[208][209] Luke states that Jesus miraculously healed the wound and John and Matthew state that Jesus criticized the violent act, insisting that his disciples should not resist his arrest. In Matthew 26:52 Jesus makes the well known statement: all who live by the sword, shall die by the sword.[208][209]

Prior to the arrest, in Matthew 26:31 Jesus tells the disciples: "All ye shall be offended in me this night" and in 32 that: "But after I am raised up, I will go before you into Galilee." After his arrest, Jesus' disciples go into hiding.[208]

Last Supper & Farewell

Agony in the Garden

Kiss of Judas

Arrest of Jesus

Trials by the Sanhedrin, Herod and Pilate

Main articles: Sanhedrin trial of Jesus, Pilate's Court, Jesus at Herod's Court, and Crown of Thorns

See also: Jesus, King of the Jews and What is truth?

In the narrative of the four canonical gospels after the betrayal and arrest of Jesus, he is taken to the Sanhedrin, a Jewish judicial body.[210] Jesus is tried by the Sanhedrin, mocked and beaten and is condemned for making claims of being the Son of God.[209][211][212] He is then taken to Pontius Pilate and the Jewish elders ask Pilate to judge and condemn Jesus—accusing him of claiming to be the King of the Jews.[212] After questioning, with few replies provided by Jesus, Pilate publicly declares that he finds Jesus innocent, but the crowd insists on punishment. Pilate then orders Jesus' crucifixion.[209][211][212][213]

Jesus in the upper right hand corner, his hands bound behind, is being tried at the high priest's house and turns to look at Peter, in Rembrandt's 1660 depiction of Peter's denial.[214]

The gospel accounts differ on various elements of the trials.[213] In, Matthew 26:57, Mark 14:53 and Luke 22:54 Jesus was taken to the high priest's house where he was mocked and beaten that night. The next day, early in the morning, the chief priests and scribes lead Jesus away into their council.[209][211][212][215] In John 18:12–14, however, Jesus is first taken to Annas, the father-in-law of Caiaphas, and then to Caiaphas.[209][211][212] All four gospels include the Denial of Peter narrative, where Peter denies knowing Jesus three times, at which point the rooster crows as predicted by Jesus.[211][216]

In the gospel accounts Jesus speaks very little, mounts no defense and gives very infrequent and indirect answers to the questions of the priests, prompting an officer to slap him. In Matthew 26:62 the lack of response from Jesus prompts the high priest to ask him: "Answerest thou nothing?"[209][211][212][217] In Mark 14:61 the high priest then asked Jesus: "Are you the Christ, the Son of the Blessed?" And Jesus said, "I am" — at which point the high priest tore his own robe in anger and accused Jesus of blasphemy. In Luke 22:70 when asked: "Are you then the Son of God?" Jesus answers: "You say that I am" affirming the title Son of God.[209][211][212][218]

Taking Jesus to Pilate's Court, the Jewish elders ask Pontius Pilate to judge and condemn Jesus—accusing him of claiming to be the King of the Jews.[212] In Luke 23:7–15 Pilate realizes that Jesus is a Galilean, and is thus under the jurisdiction of Herod Antipas.[219][220] Pilate sends Jesus to Herod to be tried.[221] However, Jesus says almost nothing in response to Herod's questions. Herod and his soldiers mock Jesus, put a gorgeous robe on him, as the King of the Jews, and sent him back to Pilate.[219] Pilate then calls together the Jewish elders, and says that he has "found no fault in this man."[221]

The use of the term king is central in the discussion between Jesus and Pilate. In John 18:36 Jesus states: "My kingdom is not of this world", but does not directly deny being the King of the Jews.[222][223] Pilate then writes "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews" as a sign (abbreviated as INRI in depictions) to be affixed to the cross of Jesus.[224]

The trial by Pilate is followed by the flagellation episode, the soldiers mock Jesus as the King of Jews by putting a purple robe (that signifies royal status) on him, place a Crown of Thorns on his head, and beat and mistreat him in Matthew 27:29–30, Mark 15:17–19 and John 19:2–3.[187] Jesus is then sent to Calvary for crucifixion.[209][211][212]

Sanhedrin Trial

Pilate's Court

Herod's Court

Crown of Thorns

Crucifixion and burial

Main articles: Crucifixion of Jesus and Entombment of Christ

See also: Sayings of Jesus on the cross and Crucifixion eclipse

Pietro Perugino's depiction of the Crucifixion as Stabat Mater, 1482

Jesus' crucifixion is described in all four canonical gospels, and is attested to by other sources of that age (e.g. Josephus and Tacitus), and is regarded as an historical event.[87][225][226]

After the trials, Jesus made his way to Calvary (the path is traditionally called via Dolorosa) and the three synoptic gospels indicate that he was assisted by Simon of Cyrene, the Romans compelling him to do so.[227][228] In Luke 23:27–28 Jesus tells the women in the multitude of people following him not to cry for him but for themselves and their children.[227] Once at Calvary (Golgotha), Jesus was offered wine mixed with gall to drink — usually offered as a form of painkiller. Matthew's and Mark's gospels state that he refused this.[227][228]

The soldiers then crucified Jesus and cast lots for his clothes. Above Jesus' head on the cross was the inscription King of the Jews, and the soldiers and those passing by mocked him about the title. Jesus was crucified between two convicted thieves, one of whom rebuked Jesus, while the other defended him.[227][229]

The Roman soldiers did not break Jesus' legs, as they did to the other two men crucified (breaking the legs hastened the crucifixion process), as Jesus was dead already. One of the soldiers traditionally known as Saint Longinus, pierced the side of Jesus with a lance and water flowed out.[229] In Mark 15:39, impressed by the events the Roman centurion calls Jesus the Son of God.[227][228][230][231]

Following Jesus' death on Friday, Joseph of Arimathea asked the permission of Pilate to remove the body. The body was removed from the cross, was wrapped in a clean cloth and buried in a new rock-hewn tomb, with the assistance of Nicodemus.[227] In Matthew 27:62–66 the Jews go to Pilate the day after the crucifixion and ask for guards for the tomb and also seal the tomb with a stone as well as the guard, to be sure the body remains there.[227][232][233]

Resurrection and ascension

Main articles: Resurrection of Jesus, Resurrection appearances of Jesus, and Ascension of Jesus

See also: Empty tomb, Great Commission, Second Coming, Resurrection of Jesus in Christian art, and Ascension of Jesus in Christian art

The New Testament accounts of the resurrection and ascension of Jesus, state that the first day of the week after the crucifixion (typically interpreted as a Sunday), his followers encounter him risen from the dead, after his tomb is discovered to be empty.[85][234][235] The resurrected Jesus appears to them that day and a number of times thereafter, delivers sermons and commissions them, before ascending to Heaven.[85][235] When the tomb is discovered empty (Matthew 28:5, Mark 16:5, Luke 24:4 and John 20:12) his followers arrive there early in the morning meet either one or two beings (either men or angels) dressed in bright robes who appear in or near the tomb.[85][235] Mark 16:9 and John 20:15 indicate that Jesus appeared to the Magdalene first, and Luke 16:9 states that she was among the Myrrhbearers.[85][235]

After the discovery of the empty tomb, the gospels indicate that Jesus made a series of appearances to the disciples.[85] These include the well known Doubting Thomas episode and the Road to Emmaus appearance where Jesus meets two disciples. The catch of 153 fish appearance includes a miracle at the Sea of Galilee, and thereafter Jesus encourages Peter to serve his followers.[85][235] The final post-resurrection appearance in the gospel accounts is when Jesus ascends to Heaven.[85] Luke 24:51 states that Jesus "was carried up into heaven". The ascension account is elaborated in Acts 1:1–11 and mentioned 1 Timothy 3:16. In Acts 1:1–9, forty days after the resurrection, as the disciples look on, "he was taken up; and a cloud received him out of their sight." 1 Peter 3:22 describes Jesus as being on "the right hand of God, having gone into heaven".[85]

The Acts of the Apostles also contain "post-ascension" appearances by Jesus. These include the vision by Stephen just before his death in Acts 7:55,[236] and the road to Damascus episode in which Apostle Paul is converted to Christianity.[237][238] The instruction given to Ananias in Damascus in Acts 9:10–18 to heal Paul is the last reported conversation with Jesus in the Bible until the Book of Revelation was written.[237][238]

Angel at empty tomb

Matthew 28:5

After Resurrection

John 20:15

With the Apostles

John 20:24

Road to Emmaus

Mark 16:12

Historical views

Existence

Main articles: Historicity of Jesus, Chronology of Jesus, and Christ myth theory

See also: Josephus on Jesus and Tacitus on Jesus

A 1640 edition of the works of Josephus, a 1st century Romano-Jewish historian who referred to Jesus[239][240]

The Christian gospels were written primarily as theological documents rather than historical chronicles.[101][102][241] However, the question of the existence of Jesus as a historical figure should be distinguished from discussions about the historicity of specific episodes in the gospels, the chronology they present, or theological issues regarding his divinity.[12] A number of historical non-Christian documents, such as Jewish and Greco-Roman sources, have been used in historical analyses of the existence of Jesus.[239]

Virtually all scholars of antiquity agree that Jesus existed and regard events such as his baptism and his crucifixion as historical.[4][9][242][243] Robert E. Van Voorst states that the idea of the non-historicity of the existence of Jesus has always been controversial, and has consistently failed to convince scholars of many disciplines, and that classical historians, as well as biblical scholars now regard it as effectively refuted.[10] Referring to the theories of non-existence of Jesus, Richard A. Burridge states: "I have to say that I do not know any respectable critical scholar who says that any more."

Separate non-Christian sources used to establish the historical existence of Jesus include the works of 1st century Roman historians Josephus and Tacitus.[239][244] Josephus scholar Louis H. Feldman has stated that "few have doubted the genuineness" of Josephus' reference to Jesus in Antiquities 20, 9, 1 and it is only disputed by a small number of scholars.[240][245] Bart D. Ehrman states that the existence of Jesus and his crucifixion by the Romans is attested to by a wide range of sources, including Josephus and Tacitus.[246]

The historical existence of Jesus as a person is a separate issue from any religious discussions about his divinity, or the theological issues relating to his nature as man or God.[247] Leading scientific atheist Richard Dawkins specifically separates the question of the existence of Jesus from the attribution of supernatural powers to him, or the accuracy of the Christian gospels.[248] Dawkins does not deny the existence of Jesus, although he dismisses the reliability of the gospel accounts.[248] This position is also held by leading critic G. A. Wells, who used to argue that Jesus never existed, but has since changed his views and no longer rejects it.[249]

In antiquity, the existence of Jesus was never denied by those who opposed Christianity and neither pagans nor Jews questioned his existence.[100][250] Although in Dialogue with Trypho, the second century Christian writer Justin Martyr wrote of a discussion about "Christ" with Trypho, most scholars agree that Trypho is a fictional character invented by Justin for his literary apologetic goals.[251][252][253] While theological differences existed among early Christians regarding the nature of Jesus (e.g. monophysitism, miaphysitism, Docetism, Nestorianism, etc.) these were debates in Christian theology, not about the historical existence of Jesus.[254][255] The Christ myth theory appeared in the 18th and 19th centuries, and was debated during the 20th century.[256] Supporters of the Christ myth theory point to the lack of any known written references to Jesus during his lifetime and the relative scarcity of non-Christian references to him in the 1st century, and dispute the veracity of the existing accounts of him.[257]

Since the 20th century scholars such as G. A. Wells, Robert M. Price and Thomas Brodie have presented various (and at times differing) arguments to support the Christ myth theory; the most thorough analysis being by G. A. Wells.[258][259][260] But Wells' book Did Jesus Exist? was criticized by James D.G. Dunn in his book The Evidence for Jesus.[261] Wells then changed his stance on issue and accepted that the Q source refers to "a preacher who existed", but still maintains that the New Testament accounts of the preacher's life are mostly fiction.[262][263][264][265][266] Robert Van Voorst and separately Michael Grant state that biblical scholars and classical historians now regard theories of non-existence of Jesus as effectively refuted.[267][268][269]

Ancient sources and archeology

See also: Jesus and archaeology

The ancient synagogue at Capernaum

According to Professor Bart Ehrman, "Jesus almost certainly did exist", and the arguments that there is no physical or archeological evidence of Jesus nor any writings from him are "not very good arguments, even though they sound good[270] as there is no such evidence of "nearly anyone who lived in the first century".[271] Ehrman also states that the view that Jesus had an immense impact on the society of his day, and hence one might have expected contemporary accounts of his deeds is not even close to correct and although Jesus had a large impact on future generations, his impact on the society of his time was "practically nil".[272]

In responding to G. A. Wells' previous arguments from silence that the lack of the contemporary references implies that Jesus did not exist (Wells no longer adheres to the non-existence hypothesis[273]), Robert Van Voorst stated that such arguments are "specially perilous" as every good student of history knows.[274] An example of such argument is that although Philo criticized the brutality of Pontius Pilate in Embassy to Gaius (c. 40 AD), he did not name Jesus as an example of Pilate's cruelty.[275] He adds that a possible explanation is that Philo never mentions Christians at all, so he had no need to mention their founder, given that Jewish literature (like early Roman references) only saw Jesus through Christianity and did not treat him independently.[275] Van Voorst states that the historical interpretation of events was not an "instant analysis" as in modern society but involved time lags and Roman sources came to consider Jesus only when the growth of Christianity came to be seen as a threat to Rome, and given that they viewed Christianity as a "superstition" they had little interest in its origins.[276] Louis Feldman states that one reason first century historian Josephus refers to Jesus in the Antiquities of the Jews (written c. 93 AD) but not in the Jewish Wars (written c. 75 AD) may be that in the twenty-year gap between the two works the growth of Christianity had made it a more important topic.[277]

In a broader context a number of scholars have cautioned against the use of arguments against silence, professor of Classics Errietta Bissa stating that they are simply not valid.[278] However, David Henige states that, although risky, such arguments can at times shed light on historical events.[279]

Despite the lack of specific archaeological remnants directly attributed to Jesus, the 21st century has witnessed an increase in scholarly interest in the integrated use of archaeology as an additional research component in arriving at a better understanding of the historical background of Jesus by illuminating the socio-economic and political background of his age.[280][281][282]

James Charlesworth states that few modern scholars now want to overlook the archaeological discoveries that clarify the nature of life in Galilee and Judea during the time of Jesus.[281] Jonathan Reed states that chief contribution of archaeology to the study of the historical Jesus is the reconstruction of his social world.[283]

Language, race and appearance

See also: Aramaic of Jesus and Race and appearance of Jesus

The representation of the race of Jesus has been influenced by cultural settings.[284][285]

Jesus grew up in Galilee and much of his ministry took place there.[286] The languages spoken in Galilee and Judea during the 1st century AD/CE include the Semitic Aramaic and Hebrew languages as well as Greek, with Aramaic being the predominant language.[287][288] Most scholars agree that during the early part of 1st century AD/CE Aramaic was the mother tongue of virtually all women in Galilee and Judae.[289] Most scholars support the theory that Jesus spoke Aramaic and that he may have also spoken Hebrew and Greek.[287][288][290] James D. G. Dunn states that there is "substantial consensus" that Jesus gave most of his teachings in Aramaic.[291]

In a review of the state of modern scholarship, Amy-Jill Levine writes that the entire category of ethnicity is fraught with difficulty. Beyond recognizing that “Jesus was Jewish,” rarely does the scholarship address what being “Jewish” means.[292] In the New Testament, written in Koine Greek, Jesus was referred to as an Ioudaios on three occasions, although he did not refer to himself as such. These three occasions are (1) by the Biblical Magi in Matthew 2 who referred to Jesus as "basileus ton ioudaion"; (2) by the Samaritan woman at the well in John 4 when Jesus was travelling out of Judea; and (3) by the Romans in all four gospels during the Passion who also used the phrase "basileus ton ioudaion".[293] According to Amy-Jill Levine, in light of the Holocaust, the Jewishness of Jesus increasingly has been highlighted.

The New Testament includes no description of the physical appearance of Jesus before his death and its narrative is generally indifferent to racial appearances and does not refer to the features of the people it discusses.[294][295][296] The synoptic gospels include the account of the Transfiguration of Jesus during which he was glorified with "his face shining as the sun" but do not provide details of his everyday appearance.[146][160] The Book of Revelation describes the features of a glorified Jesus in a vision (1:13–16), but the vision refers to Jesus in heavenly form, after his death and resurrection.[297][298]

By the 19th century theories that Jesus was of Aryan descent, in particular European, were developed and later appealed to those who wanted nothing Jewish about Jesus, e.g. Nazi theologians.[296][299] These theories usually also include the reasoning that Jesus was Aryan because Galilee was an Aryan region, but have not gained scholarly acceptance.[296][300] By the 20th century, theories had also been proposed that Jesus was of black African descent, e.g. based on the argument that Mary his mother was a descendant of black Jews.[301]

Depictions

Main article: Depiction of Jesus

Despite the lack of biblical references or historical records, for two millennia a wide range of depictions of Jesus have appeared, often influenced by cultural settings, political circumstances and theological contexts.[284][285][295] As in other Christian art, the earliest depictions date to the late 2nd or early 3rd century, and survivors are primarily found in the Catacombs of Rome.[302]

The Byzantine Iconoclasm acted as a barrier to developments in the East, but by the 9th century art was permitted again.[284] The Transfiguration of Jesus was a major theme in the East and every Eastern Orthodox monk who had trained in icon painting had to prove his craft by painting an icon of the Transfiguration.[303] The Renaissance brought forth a number of artists who focused on the depictions of Jesus and after Giotto, Fra Angelico and others systematically developed uncluttered images.[284] The Protestant Reformation brought a revival of aniconism in Christianity, though total prohibition was atypical, and Protestant objections to images have tended to reduce since the 16th century, and although large images are generally avoided, few Protestants now object to book illustrations depicting Jesus.[304][305] On the other hand, the use of depictions of Jesus is advocated by the leaders of denominations such as Anglicans and Catholics[306][307][308] and is a key element of the doxology of the Eastern Orthodox tradition.[309][310]

Relics associated with Jesus

Main article: Relics associated with Jesus

Secondo Pia's 1898 negative of the photograph of the Shroud of Turin, associated with Holy Face of Jesus devotions

A number of relics associated with Jesus have been claimed and displayed throughout the history of Christianity. Some people believe in the authenticity of some relics; others doubt the authenticity of various items. For instance, the sixteenth century Catholic theologian Erasmus wrote sarcastically about the proliferation of relics, and the number of buildings that could have been constructed from the wood claimed to be from the cross used in